diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
index 974decb2..00cdf704 100644
--- a/README.md
+++ b/README.md
@@ -1,4 +1,59 @@
-# nHance
+# CodeIgniter 4 Framework
 
-## Tech Stack
-**Please** read the dev guide
\ No newline at end of file
+## What is CodeIgniter?
+
+CodeIgniter is a PHP full-stack web framework that is light, fast, flexible and secure.
+More information can be found at the [official site](https://codeigniter.com).
+
+This repository holds the distributable version of the framework.
+It has been built from the
+[development repository](https://github.com/codeigniter4/CodeIgniter4).
+
+More information about the plans for version 4 can be found in [CodeIgniter 4](https://forum.codeigniter.com/forumdisplay.php?fid=28) on the forums.
+
+The user guide corresponding to the latest version of the framework can be found
+[here](https://codeigniter4.github.io/userguide/).
+
+## Important Change with index.php
+
+`index.php` is no longer in the root of the project! It has been moved inside the *public* folder,
+for better security and separation of components.
+
+This means that you should configure your web server to "point" to your project's *public* folder, and
+not to the project root. A better practice would be to configure a virtual host to point there. A poor practice would be to point your web server to the project root and expect to enter *public/...*, as the rest of your logic and the
+framework are exposed.
+
+**Please** read the user guide for a better explanation of how CI4 works!
+
+## Repository Management
+
+We use GitHub issues, in our main repository, to track **BUGS** and to track approved **DEVELOPMENT** work packages.
+We use our [forum](http://forum.codeigniter.com) to provide SUPPORT and to discuss
+FEATURE REQUESTS.
+
+This repository is a "distribution" one, built by our release preparation script.
+Problems with it can be raised on our forum, or as issues in the main repository.
+
+## Contributing
+
+We welcome contributions from the community.
+
+Please read the [*Contributing to CodeIgniter*](https://github.com/codeigniter4/CodeIgniter4/blob/develop/CONTRIBUTING.md) section in the development repository.
+
+## Server Requirements
+
+PHP version 7.4 or higher is required, with the following extensions installed:
+
+- [intl](http://php.net/manual/en/intl.requirements.php)
+- [mbstring](http://php.net/manual/en/mbstring.installation.php)
+
+> **Warning**
+> The end of life date for PHP 7.4 was November 28, 2022. If you are
+> still using PHP 7.4, you should upgrade immediately. The end of life date
+> for PHP 8.0 will be November 26, 2023.
+
+Additionally, make sure that the following extensions are enabled in your PHP:
+
+- json (enabled by default - don't turn it off)
+- [mysqlnd](http://php.net/manual/en/mysqlnd.install.php) if you plan to use MySQL
+- [libcurl](http://php.net/manual/en/curl.requirements.php) if you plan to use the HTTP\CURLRequest library
diff --git a/app/Config/App.php b/app/Config/App.php
index 775b5ca3..ec06b887 100644
--- a/app/Config/App.php
+++ b/app/Config/App.php
@@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ class App extends BaseConfig
      *
      *    http://example.com/
      */
-    public string $baseURL = 'http://localhost:8080/';
+    public string $baseURL = '';
 
     /**
      * Allowed Hostnames in the Site URL other than the hostname in the baseURL.
@@ -27,8 +27,7 @@ class App extends BaseConfig
      *      'http://accounts.example.com/':
      *          ['media.example.com', 'accounts.example.com']
      *
-     * @var string[]
-     * @phpstan-var list<string>
+     * @var list<string>
      */
     public array $allowedHostnames = [];
 
@@ -41,7 +40,7 @@ class App extends BaseConfig
      * something else. If you are using mod_rewrite to remove the page set this
      * variable so that it is blank.
      */
-    public string $indexPage = '';
+    public string $indexPage = 'index.php';
 
     /**
      * --------------------------------------------------------------------------
diff --git a/app/Config/Autoload.php b/app/Config/Autoload.php
old mode 100644
new mode 100755
diff --git a/app/Config/Boot/development.php b/app/Config/Boot/development.php
index aa8099a4..a868447a 100644
--- a/app/Config/Boot/development.php
+++ b/app/Config/Boot/development.php
@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@
  |
  | If you set 'display_errors' to '1', CI4's detailed error report will show.
  */
-error_reporting(-1);
+error_reporting(E_ALL);
 ini_set('display_errors', '1');
 
 /*
diff --git a/app/Config/Boot/testing.php b/app/Config/Boot/testing.php
index e84670e9..40b6ca83 100644
--- a/app/Config/Boot/testing.php
+++ b/app/Config/Boot/testing.php
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@
  | make sure they don't make it to production. And save us hours of
  | painful debugging.
  */
-error_reporting(-1);
+error_reporting(E_ALL);
 ini_set('display_errors', '1');
 
 /*
diff --git a/app/Config/Cache.php b/app/Config/Cache.php
index 61cdd50d..b5b2cdc1 100644
--- a/app/Config/Cache.php
+++ b/app/Config/Cache.php
@@ -158,8 +158,7 @@ class Cache extends BaseConfig
      * This is an array of cache engine alias' and class names. Only engines
      * that are listed here are allowed to be used.
      *
-     * @var array<string, string>
-     * @phpstan-var array<string, class-string<CacheInterface>>
+     * @var array<string, class-string<CacheInterface>>
      */
     public array $validHandlers = [
         'dummy'     => DummyHandler::class,
diff --git a/app/Config/DocTypes.php b/app/Config/DocTypes.php
old mode 100644
new mode 100755
diff --git a/app/Config/Email.php b/app/Config/Email.php
index 01b805a5..4dce650b 100644
--- a/app/Config/Email.php
+++ b/app/Config/Email.php
@@ -26,7 +26,7 @@ class Email extends BaseConfig
     public string $mailPath = '/usr/sbin/sendmail';
 
     /**
-     * SMTP Server Address
+     * SMTP Server Hostname
      */
     public string $SMTPHost = '';
 
diff --git a/app/Config/Kint.php b/app/Config/Kint.php
index cc8b5459..117e66d8 100644
--- a/app/Config/Kint.php
+++ b/app/Config/Kint.php
@@ -27,8 +27,7 @@ class Kint extends BaseConfig
     */
 
     /**
-     * @var array<int, ConstructablePluginInterface|string>
-     * @phpstan-var list<class-string<ConstructablePluginInterface>|ConstructablePluginInterface>
+     * @var list<class-string<ConstructablePluginInterface>|ConstructablePluginInterface>|null
      */
     public $plugins;
 
@@ -46,14 +45,12 @@ class Kint extends BaseConfig
     public int $richSort     = AbstractRenderer::SORT_FULL;
 
     /**
-     * @var array<string, string>
-     * @phpstan-var array<string, class-string<ValuePluginInterface>>
+     * @var array<string, class-string<ValuePluginInterface>>|null
      */
     public $richObjectPlugins;
 
     /**
-     * @var array<string, string>
-     * @phpstan-var array<string, class-string<TabPluginInterface>>
+     * @var array<string, class-string<TabPluginInterface>>|null
      */
     public $richTabPlugins;
 
diff --git a/app/Config/Modules.php b/app/Config/Modules.php
index f84580c8..8d4bf565 100644
--- a/app/Config/Modules.php
+++ b/app/Config/Modules.php
@@ -58,7 +58,7 @@ class Modules extends BaseModules
      *       ],
      *   ]
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array{only?: list<string>, exclude?: list<string>}
      */
     public $composerPackages = [];
 
@@ -72,7 +72,7 @@ class Modules extends BaseModules
      *
      * If it is not listed, only the base application elements will be used.
      *
-     * @var string[]
+     * @var list<string>
      */
     public $aliases = [
         'events',
diff --git a/app/Config/Publisher.php b/app/Config/Publisher.php
index 47475112..bf03be1d 100644
--- a/app/Config/Publisher.php
+++ b/app/Config/Publisher.php
@@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ class Publisher extends BasePublisher
      * result in a PublisherException. Files that do no fit the
      * pattern will cause copy/merge to fail.
      *
-     * @var array<string,string>
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     public $restrictions = [
         ROOTPATH => '*',
diff --git a/app/Config/Session.php b/app/Config/Session.php
index ea834805..e077df64 100644
--- a/app/Config/Session.php
+++ b/app/Config/Session.php
@@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ class Session extends BaseConfig
      * - `CodeIgniter\Session\Handlers\MemcachedHandler`
      * - `CodeIgniter\Session\Handlers\RedisHandler`
      *
-     * @phpstan-var class-string<BaseHandler>
+     * @var class-string<BaseHandler>
      */
     public string $driver = FileHandler::class;
 
diff --git a/app/Controllers/Home.php b/app/Controllers/Home.php
index 489a8b91..056d4170 100644
--- a/app/Controllers/Home.php
+++ b/app/Controllers/Home.php
@@ -13,6 +13,7 @@ class Home extends PublicController
     {
         echo base_url();
         //echo ($_SERVER['SERVER_PORT'] == 443 ? 'https' : 'http') . "://{$_SERVER['SERVER_NAME']}".str_replace(basename($_SERVER['SCRIPT_NAME']),"",$_SERVER['SCRIPT_NAME']);
+        return view('welcome_message');
         return view('test');
     }
 
diff --git a/app/Controllers/LoginController.php b/app/Controllers/LoginController.php
index 49e73583..6a4761a9 100644
--- a/app/Controllers/LoginController.php
+++ b/app/Controllers/LoginController.php
@@ -18,8 +18,8 @@ class LoginController extends BaseController
 
     public function login()
     {
-        $this->session->set('isLoggedIn',true);
-        $this->session->set('userid','10');
+        // $this->session->set('isLoggedIn',true);
+        // $this->session->set('userid','10');
         return view('login');
     }
 
diff --git a/app/Controllers/UserController.php b/app/Controllers/UserController.php
index 5c9fba87..4c56077a 100644
--- a/app/Controllers/UserController.php
+++ b/app/Controllers/UserController.php
@@ -46,7 +46,7 @@ class UserController extends AdminController
         // Get the ID of the inserted record
         $insertedId = $userModel->insertID();
 
-        return view('userlist');
+        redirect('user/list');
 
     }
 
@@ -87,9 +87,9 @@ class UserController extends AdminController
 
         // Fetch all users from the 'users' table
         $users = $userModel
-                    ->join('users as updater', 'updater.id = users.updated_by', 'left')
-                    ->join('users as creator', 'creator.id = users.created_by', 'left')
-                    ->select('users.*, updater.username as updated_by_name,creator.username as created_by_name'); // Assuming 
+                    ->join('users3 as updater', 'updater.id = users3.updated_by', 'left')
+                    ->join('users3 as creator', 'creator.id = users3.created_by', 'left')
+                    ->select('users3.*, updater.username as updated_by_name,creator.username as created_by_name'); // Assuming 
         if(!empty($userid) && is_numeric($userid))
         {
          $result = $users->find($userid);
diff --git a/app/Filters/AuthMVC.php b/app/Filters/AuthMVC.php
index 13f0f5fe..16618cde 100644
--- a/app/Filters/AuthMVC.php
+++ b/app/Filters/AuthMVC.php
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@ class AuthMVC implements FilterInterface
     {
         if (!check_session()) {
             
-          return redirect()->to(site_url('login'));
+          return redirect()->to(base_url('login'));
         }
 
     }
diff --git a/app/Models/User.php b/app/Models/User.php
index 1ab18fa1..9a884bb5 100644
--- a/app/Models/User.php
+++ b/app/Models/User.php
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ use CodeIgniter\Model;
 class User extends Model
 {
     protected $DBGroup              = 'default';
-    protected $table                = 'users';
+    protected $table                = 'users3';
     protected $primaryKey           = 'id';
     protected $useAutoIncrement     = true;
     protected $insertID             = 0;
diff --git a/app/Views/user.php b/app/Views/user.php
index cb799615..536e6d92 100644
--- a/app/Views/user.php
+++ b/app/Views/user.php
@@ -106,28 +106,28 @@ span.psw {
                 <div class="container-fluid">
                     <h1 class="mt-4">New/Edit User</h1>
   <div class="container">
-    <form action=<?php echo base_url()."user/edit" ?> method="post">
+    <form action=<?php echo base_url()."user/create" ?> method="post">
         <label for="username">Username:</label>
-        <input type="text" id="id" name="id" value= <?=$user['id']?> >
-        <input type="text" id="username" name="username" value= <?=$user['username']?> required><br>
+        <input type="text" id="id" name="id" value= >
+        <input type="text" id="username" name="username" value=  required><br>
 
         <label for="firstname">First Name:</label>
-        <input type="text" id="firstname" name="firstname" value= <?=$user['firstname']?> required><br>
+        <input type="text" id="firstname" name="firstname" value=  required><br>
 
         <label for="lastname">Last Name:</label>
-        <input type="text" id="lastname" name="lastname" value= <?=$user['lastname']?> required><br>
+        <input type="text" id="lastname" name="lastname" value=  required><br>
 
         <label for="email">Email:</label>
-        <input type="email" id="email" name="email" value= <?=$user['email']?> required><br>
+        <input type="email" id="email" name="email" value=  required><br>
 
         <label for="mobile_no">Mobile Number:</label>
-        <input type="text" id="mobile_no" name="mobile_no" value= <?=$user['mobile_no']?>><br>
+        <input type="text" id="mobile_no" name="mobile_no" value= ><br>
 
         <label for="password">Password:</label>
         <input type="password" id="password" name="password" value="" required><br>
 
         <label for="is_active">Active:</label>
-        <input type="checkbox" id="is_active" name="is_active" checked= <?=$user['is_active']?> ><br>
+        <input type="checkbox" id="is_active" name="is_active" checked=  ><br>
 
         <button type="submit" value="Submit">submit</button>
     </form>
diff --git a/composer.json b/composer.json
index f93daa27..891bff55 100644
--- a/composer.json
+++ b/composer.json
@@ -18,9 +18,9 @@
         "psr/log": "^1.1"
     },
     "require-dev": {
-        "codeigniter/coding-standard": "^1.5",
+        "codeigniter/coding-standard": "^1.7",
         "fakerphp/faker": "^1.9",
-        "friendsofphp/php-cs-fixer": "3.13.0",
+        "friendsofphp/php-cs-fixer": "^3.47.1",
         "kint-php/kint": "^5.0.4",
         "mikey179/vfsstream": "^1.6",
         "nexusphp/cs-config": "^3.6",
@@ -43,6 +43,7 @@
         "ext-readline": "Improves CLI::input() usability",
         "ext-redis": "If you use Cache class RedisHandler",
         "ext-simplexml": "If you format XML",
+        "ext-sodium": "If you use Encryption SodiumHandler",
         "ext-sqlite3": "If you use SQLite3",
         "ext-sqlsrv": "If you use SQL Server",
         "ext-xdebug": "If you use CIUnitTestCase::assertHeaderEmitted()"
diff --git a/public/index.php b/public/index.php
index 75a69d2b..3596f8a8 100644
--- a/public/index.php
+++ b/public/index.php
@@ -14,6 +14,9 @@ if (version_compare(PHP_VERSION, $minPhpVersion, '<')) {
 
 // Path to the front controller (this file)
 define('FCPATH', __DIR__ . DIRECTORY_SEPARATOR);
+// echo FCPATH;
+// echo getcwd();
+// die();
 
 // Ensure the current directory is pointing to the front controller's directory
 if (getcwd() . DIRECTORY_SEPARATOR !== FCPATH) {
@@ -35,6 +38,7 @@ require FCPATH . '../app/Config/Paths.php';
 // ^^^ Change this line if you move your application folder
 
 $paths = new Config\Paths();
+// print_r($paths);
 
 // Location of the framework bootstrap file.
 require rtrim($paths->systemDirectory, '\\/ ') . DIRECTORY_SEPARATOR . 'bootstrap.php';
@@ -43,12 +47,11 @@ require rtrim($paths->systemDirectory, '\\/ ') . DIRECTORY_SEPARATOR . 'bootstra
 require_once SYSTEMPATH . 'Config/DotEnv.php';
 (new CodeIgniter\Config\DotEnv(ROOTPATH))->load();
 
-
 // Define ENVIRONMENT
 if (! defined('ENVIRONMENT')) {
-    define('ENVIRONMENT', env('CI_ENVIRONMENT', 'production'));
+    define('ENVIRONMENT', env('CI_ENVIRONMENT', 'development'));
 }
-// init_set('display_errors', 1);
+error_reporting(E_ALL ^ E_NOTICE);
 // Load Config Cache
 // $factoriesCache = new \CodeIgniter\Cache\FactoriesCache();
 // $factoriesCache->load('config');
@@ -63,7 +66,7 @@ if (! defined('ENVIRONMENT')) {
  * the application run, and does all the dirty work to get
  * the pieces all working together.
  */
-
+// echo ENVIRONMENT;
 $app = Config\Services::codeigniter();
 $app->initialize();
 $context = is_cli() ? 'php-cli' : 'web';
@@ -76,7 +79,7 @@ $app->setContext($context);
  * Now that everything is set up, it's time to actually fire
  * up the engines and make this app do its thang.
  */
-
+//echo 'run';die('sample');
 $app->run();
 
 // Save Config Cache
diff --git a/spark b/spark
old mode 100644
new mode 100755
index 2ea79d5c..9daa4403
--- a/spark
+++ b/spark
@@ -39,7 +39,7 @@ if (version_compare(PHP_VERSION, $minPhpVersion, '<')) {
 }
 
 // We want errors to be shown when using it from the CLI.
-error_reporting(-1);
+error_reporting(E_ALL);
 ini_set('display_errors', '1');
 
 /**
diff --git a/system/API/ResponseTrait.php b/system/API/ResponseTrait.php
index 5a350007..3cf05359 100644
--- a/system/API/ResponseTrait.php
+++ b/system/API/ResponseTrait.php
@@ -94,7 +94,7 @@ trait ResponseTrait
             $output = null;
             $this->format($data);
         } else {
-            $status = empty($status) ? 200 : $status;
+            $status ??= 200;
             $output = $this->format($data);
         }
 
@@ -318,7 +318,7 @@ trait ResponseTrait
 
         // Determine correct response type through content negotiation if not explicitly declared
         if (
-            (empty($this->format) || ! in_array($this->format, ['json', 'xml'], true))
+            ! in_array($this->format, ['json', 'xml'], true)
             && $this->request instanceof IncomingRequest
         ) {
             $mime = $this->request->negotiate(
diff --git a/system/Autoloader/Autoloader.php b/system/Autoloader/Autoloader.php
index ecfd92b5..ca886fb5 100644
--- a/system/Autoloader/Autoloader.php
+++ b/system/Autoloader/Autoloader.php
@@ -75,8 +75,7 @@ class Autoloader
     /**
      * Stores files as a list.
      *
-     * @var string[]
-     * @phpstan-var list<string>
+     * @var list<string>
      */
     protected $files = [];
 
@@ -84,8 +83,7 @@ class Autoloader
      * Stores helper list.
      * Always load the URL helper, it should be used in most apps.
      *
-     * @var string[]
-     * @phpstan-var list<string>
+     * @var list<string>
      */
     protected $helpers = ['url'];
 
@@ -119,7 +117,7 @@ class Autoloader
             $this->files = $config->files;
         }
 
-        if (isset($config->helpers)) { // @phpstan-ignore-line
+        if (isset($config->helpers)) {
             $this->helpers = [...$this->helpers, ...$config->helpers];
         }
 
@@ -185,8 +183,7 @@ class Autoloader
     /**
      * Registers namespaces with the autoloader.
      *
-     * @param array<string, array<int, string>|string>|string $namespace
-     * @phpstan-param array<string, list<string>|string>|string $namespace
+     * @param array<string, list<string>|string>|string $namespace
      *
      * @return $this
      */
diff --git a/system/Autoloader/FileLocator.php b/system/Autoloader/FileLocator.php
index 744567a3..c5cf8e18 100644
--- a/system/Autoloader/FileLocator.php
+++ b/system/Autoloader/FileLocator.php
@@ -35,14 +35,14 @@ class FileLocator
      * Attempts to locate a file by examining the name for a namespace
      * and looking through the PSR-4 namespaced files that we know about.
      *
-     * @param string      $file   The relative file path or namespaced file to
-     *                            locate. If not namespaced, search in the app
-     *                            folder.
-     * @param string|null $folder The folder within the namespace that we should
-     *                            look for the file. If $file does not contain
-     *                            this value, it will be appended to the namespace
-     *                            folder.
-     * @param string      $ext    The file extension the file should have.
+     * @param string                $file   The relative file path or namespaced file to
+     *                                      locate. If not namespaced, search in the app
+     *                                      folder.
+     * @param non-empty-string|null $folder The folder within the namespace that we should
+     *                                      look for the file. If $file does not contain
+     *                                      this value, it will be appended to the namespace
+     *                                      folder.
+     * @param string                $ext    The file extension the file should have.
      *
      * @return false|string The path to the file, or false if not found.
      */
@@ -51,7 +51,7 @@ class FileLocator
         $file = $this->ensureExt($file, $ext);
 
         // Clears the folder name if it is at the beginning of the filename
-        if (! empty($folder) && strpos($file, $folder) === 0) {
+        if ($folder !== null && strpos($file, $folder) === 0) {
             $file = substr($file, strlen($folder . '/'));
         }
 
@@ -67,7 +67,7 @@ class FileLocator
         $segments = explode('\\', $file);
 
         // The first segment will be empty if a slash started the filename.
-        if (empty($segments[0])) {
+        if ($segments[0] === '') {
             unset($segments[0]);
         }
 
@@ -89,7 +89,7 @@ class FileLocator
         }
 
         // if no namespaces matched then quit
-        if (empty($paths)) {
+        if ($paths === []) {
             return false;
         }
 
@@ -101,7 +101,7 @@ class FileLocator
             // If we have a folder name, then the calling function
             // expects this file to be within that folder, like 'Views',
             // or 'libraries'.
-            if (! empty($folder) && strpos($path . $filename, '/' . $folder . '/') === false) {
+            if ($folder !== null && strpos($path . $filename, '/' . $folder . '/') === false) {
                 $path .= trim($folder, '/') . '/';
             }
 
@@ -119,6 +119,10 @@ class FileLocator
      */
     public function getClassname(string $file): string
     {
+        if (is_dir($file)) {
+            return '';
+        }
+
         $php       = file_get_contents($file);
         $tokens    = token_get_all($php);
         $dlm       = false;
@@ -150,7 +154,7 @@ class FileLocator
             }
         }
 
-        if (empty($className)) {
+        if ($className === '') {
             return '';
         }
 
@@ -192,7 +196,7 @@ class FileLocator
             }
         }
 
-        if (! $prioritizeApp && ! empty($appPaths)) {
+        if (! $prioritizeApp && $appPaths !== []) {
             $foundPaths = [...$foundPaths, ...$appPaths];
         }
 
@@ -268,7 +272,7 @@ class FileLocator
         foreach ($this->getNamespaces() as $namespace) {
             $namespace['path'] = realpath($namespace['path']) ?: $namespace['path'];
 
-            if (empty($namespace['path'])) {
+            if ($namespace['path'] === '') {
                 continue;
             }
 
@@ -301,7 +305,7 @@ class FileLocator
      */
     public function listFiles(string $path): array
     {
-        if (empty($path)) {
+        if ($path === '') {
             return [];
         }
 
@@ -318,7 +322,7 @@ class FileLocator
 
             $tempFiles = get_filenames($fullPath, true, false, false);
 
-            if (! empty($tempFiles)) {
+            if ($tempFiles !== []) {
                 $files = array_merge($files, $tempFiles);
             }
         }
@@ -334,7 +338,7 @@ class FileLocator
      */
     public function listNamespaceFiles(string $prefix, string $path): array
     {
-        if (empty($path) || empty($prefix)) {
+        if ($path === '' || ($prefix === '')) {
             return [];
         }
 
@@ -352,7 +356,7 @@ class FileLocator
 
             $tempFiles = get_filenames($fullPath, true, false, false);
 
-            if (! empty($tempFiles)) {
+            if ($tempFiles !== []) {
                 $files = array_merge($files, $tempFiles);
             }
         }
@@ -364,11 +368,13 @@ class FileLocator
      * Checks the app folder to see if the file can be found.
      * Only for use with filenames that DO NOT include namespacing.
      *
+     * @param non-empty-string|null $folder
+     *
      * @return false|string The path to the file, or false if not found.
      */
     protected function legacyLocate(string $file, ?string $folder = null)
     {
-        $path = APPPATH . (empty($folder) ? $file : $folder . '/' . $file);
+        $path = APPPATH . ($folder === null ? $file : $folder . '/' . $file);
         $path = realpath($path) ?: $path;
 
         if (is_file($path)) {
diff --git a/system/BaseModel.php b/system/BaseModel.php
index c27afd02..6a6f0dff 100644
--- a/system/BaseModel.php
+++ b/system/BaseModel.php
@@ -41,6 +41,16 @@ use stdClass;
  *      - ensure validation is run against objects when saving items
  *      - process various callbacks
  *      - allow intermingling calls to the db connection
+ *
+ * @phpstan-type row_array array<int|string, float|int|null|string>
+ * @phpstan-type event_data_beforeinsert array{data: row_array}
+ * @phpstan-type event_data_afterinsert array{id: int|string, data: row_array, result: bool}
+ * @phpstan-type event_data_beforefind array{id?: int|string, method: string, singleton: bool, limit?: int, offset?: int}
+ * @phpstan-type event_data_afterfind array{id: int|string|null|list<int|string>, data: row_array|list<row_array>|object|null, method: string, singleton: bool}
+ * @phpstan-type event_data_beforeupdate array{id: null|list<int|string>, data: row_array}
+ * @phpstan-type event_data_afterupdate array{id: null|list<int|string>, data: row_array|object, result: bool}
+ * @phpstan-type event_data_beforedelete array{id: null|list<int|string>, purge: bool}
+ * @phpstan-type event_data_afterdelete array{id: null|list<int|string>, data: null, purge: bool, result: bool}
  */
 abstract class BaseModel
 {
@@ -63,8 +73,7 @@ abstract class BaseModel
      * The Database connection group that
      * should be instantiated.
      *
-     * @var string|null
-     * @phpstan-var non-empty-string|null
+     * @var non-empty-string|null
      */
     protected $DBGroup;
 
@@ -391,11 +400,12 @@ abstract class BaseModel
      * Inserts data into the current database.
      * This method works only with dbCalls.
      *
-     * @param array $data Data
+     * @param array $row Row data
+     * @phpstan-param row_array $row
      *
      * @return bool
      */
-    abstract protected function doInsert(array $data);
+    abstract protected function doInsert(array $row);
 
     /**
      * Compiles batch insert and runs the queries, validating each row prior.
@@ -414,10 +424,11 @@ abstract class BaseModel
      * Updates a single record in the database.
      * This method works only with dbCalls.
      *
-     * @param array|int|string|null $id   ID
-     * @param array|null            $data Data
+     * @param array|int|string|null $id  ID
+     * @param array|null            $row Row data
+     * @phpstan-param row_array|null $row
      */
-    abstract protected function doUpdate($id = null, $data = null): bool;
+    abstract protected function doUpdate($id = null, $row = null): bool;
 
     /**
      * Compiles an update and runs the query.
@@ -469,12 +480,13 @@ abstract class BaseModel
      * Compiles a replace and runs the query.
      * This method works only with dbCalls.
      *
-     * @param array|null $data      Data
-     * @param bool       $returnSQL Set to true to return Query String
+     * @param array|null $row Row data
+     * @phpstan-param row_array|null $row
+     * @param bool $returnSQL Set to true to return Query String
      *
      * @return BaseResult|false|Query|string
      */
-    abstract protected function doReplace(?array $data = null, bool $returnSQL = false);
+    abstract protected function doReplace(?array $row = null, bool $returnSQL = false);
 
     /**
      * Grabs the last error(s) that occurred from the Database connection.
@@ -499,15 +511,16 @@ abstract class BaseModel
      * Public getter to return the id value using the idValue() method.
      * For example with SQL this will return $data->$this->primaryKey.
      *
-     * @param array|object $data
+     * @param array|object $row Row data
+     * @phpstan-param row_array|object $row
      *
      * @return array|int|string|null
      *
      * @todo: Make abstract in version 5.0
      */
-    public function getIdValue($data)
+    public function getIdValue($row)
     {
-        return $this->idValue($data);
+        return $this->idValue($row);
     }
 
     /**
@@ -540,6 +553,7 @@ abstract class BaseModel
      * @param array|int|string|null $id One primary key or an array of primary keys
      *
      * @return array|object|null The resulting row of data, or null.
+     * @phpstan-return ($id is int|string ? row_array|object|null : list<row_array|object>)
      */
     public function find($id = null)
     {
@@ -553,7 +567,7 @@ abstract class BaseModel
                 'singleton' => $singleton,
             ]);
 
-            if (! empty($eventData['returnData'])) {
+            if (isset($eventData['returnData']) && $eventData['returnData'] === true) {
                 return $eventData['data'];
             }
         }
@@ -615,7 +629,7 @@ abstract class BaseModel
                 'singleton' => false,
             ]);
 
-            if (! empty($eventData['returnData'])) {
+            if (isset($eventData['returnData']) && $eventData['returnData'] === true) {
                 return $eventData['data'];
             }
         }
@@ -653,7 +667,7 @@ abstract class BaseModel
                 'singleton' => true,
             ]);
 
-            if (! empty($eventData['returnData'])) {
+            if (isset($eventData['returnData']) && $eventData['returnData'] === true) {
                 return $eventData['data'];
             }
         }
@@ -682,20 +696,21 @@ abstract class BaseModel
      * you must ensure that the class will provide access to the class
      * variables, even if through a magic method.
      *
-     * @param array|object $data Data
+     * @param array|object $row Row data
+     * @phpstan-param row_array|object $row
      *
      * @throws ReflectionException
      */
-    public function save($data): bool
+    public function save($row): bool
     {
-        if (empty($data)) {
+        if ((array) $row === []) {
             return true;
         }
 
-        if ($this->shouldUpdate($data)) {
-            $response = $this->update($this->getIdValue($data), $data);
+        if ($this->shouldUpdate($row)) {
+            $response = $this->update($this->getIdValue($row), $row);
         } else {
-            $response = $this->insert($data, false);
+            $response = $this->insert($row, false);
 
             if ($response !== false) {
                 $response = true;
@@ -709,11 +724,14 @@ abstract class BaseModel
      * This method is called on save to determine if entry have to be updated.
      * If this method returns false insert operation will be executed
      *
-     * @param array|object $data Data
+     * @param array|object $row Row data
+     * @phpstan-param row_array|object $row
      */
-    protected function shouldUpdate($data): bool
+    protected function shouldUpdate($row): bool
     {
-        return ! empty($this->getIdValue($data));
+        $id = $this->getIdValue($row);
+
+        return ! ($id === null || $id === []);
     }
 
     /**
@@ -730,14 +748,16 @@ abstract class BaseModel
      * Inserts data into the database. If an object is provided,
      * it will attempt to convert it to an array.
      *
-     * @param array|object|null $data     Data
-     * @param bool              $returnID Whether insert ID should be returned or not.
+     * @param array|object|null $row Row data
+     * @phpstan-param row_array|object|null $row
+     * @param bool $returnID Whether insert ID should be returned or not.
      *
      * @return bool|int|string insert ID or true on success. false on failure.
+     * @phpstan-return ($returnID is true ? int|string|false : bool)
      *
      * @throws ReflectionException
      */
-    public function insert($data = null, bool $returnID = true)
+    public function insert($row = null, bool $returnID = true)
     {
         $this->insertID = 0;
 
@@ -745,10 +765,10 @@ abstract class BaseModel
         $cleanValidationRules       = $this->cleanValidationRules;
         $this->cleanValidationRules = false;
 
-        $data = $this->transformDataToArray($data, 'insert');
+        $row = $this->transformDataToArray($row, 'insert');
 
         // Validate data before saving.
-        if (! $this->skipValidation && ! $this->validate($data)) {
+        if (! $this->skipValidation && ! $this->validate($row)) {
             // Restore $cleanValidationRules
             $this->cleanValidationRules = $cleanValidationRules;
 
@@ -760,26 +780,20 @@ abstract class BaseModel
 
         // Must be called first, so we don't
         // strip out created_at values.
-        $data = $this->doProtectFieldsForInsert($data);
+        $row = $this->doProtectFieldsForInsert($row);
 
         // doProtectFields() can further remove elements from
-        // $data so we need to check for empty dataset again
-        if (! $this->allowEmptyInserts && empty($data)) {
+        // $row, so we need to check for empty dataset again
+        if (! $this->allowEmptyInserts && $row === []) {
             throw DataException::forEmptyDataset('insert');
         }
 
         // Set created_at and updated_at with same time
         $date = $this->setDate();
+        $row  = $this->setCreatedField($row, $date);
+        $row  = $this->setUpdatedField($row, $date);
 
-        if ($this->useTimestamps && $this->createdField && ! array_key_exists($this->createdField, $data)) {
-            $data[$this->createdField] = $date;
-        }
-
-        if ($this->useTimestamps && $this->updatedField && ! array_key_exists($this->updatedField, $data)) {
-            $data[$this->updatedField] = $date;
-        }
-
-        $eventData = ['data' => $data];
+        $eventData = ['data' => $row];
 
         if ($this->tempAllowCallbacks) {
             $eventData = $this->trigger('beforeInsert', $eventData);
@@ -809,13 +823,44 @@ abstract class BaseModel
         return $returnID ? $this->insertID : $result;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Set datetime to created field.
+     *
+     * @phpstan-param row_array $row
+     * @param int|string $date timestamp or datetime string
+     */
+    protected function setCreatedField(array $row, $date): array
+    {
+        if ($this->useTimestamps && $this->createdField !== '' && ! array_key_exists($this->createdField, $row)) {
+            $row[$this->createdField] = $date;
+        }
+
+        return $row;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Set datetime to updated field.
+     *
+     * @phpstan-param row_array $row
+     * @param int|string $date timestamp or datetime string
+     */
+    protected function setUpdatedField(array $row, $date): array
+    {
+        if ($this->useTimestamps && $this->updatedField !== '' && ! array_key_exists($this->updatedField, $row)) {
+            $row[$this->updatedField] = $date;
+        }
+
+        return $row;
+    }
+
     /**
      * Compiles batch insert runs the queries, validating each row prior.
      *
-     * @param array|null $set       an associative array of insert values
-     * @param bool|null  $escape    Whether to escape values
-     * @param int        $batchSize The size of the batch to run
-     * @param bool       $testing   True means only number of records is returned, false will execute the query
+     * @param list<array|object>|null $set an associative array of insert values
+     * @phpstan-param list<row_array|object>|null $set
+     * @param bool|null $escape    Whether to escape values
+     * @param int       $batchSize The size of the batch to run
+     * @param bool      $testing   True means only number of records is returned, false will execute the query
      *
      * @return bool|int Number of rows inserted or FALSE on failure
      *
@@ -829,7 +874,7 @@ abstract class BaseModel
 
         if (is_array($set)) {
             foreach ($set as &$row) {
-                // If $data is using a custom class with public or protected
+                // If $row is using a custom class with public or protected
                 // properties representing the collection elements, we need to grab
                 // them as an array.
                 if (is_object($row) && ! $row instanceof stdClass) {
@@ -857,14 +902,8 @@ abstract class BaseModel
 
                 // Set created_at and updated_at with same time
                 $date = $this->setDate();
-
-                if ($this->useTimestamps && $this->createdField && ! array_key_exists($this->createdField, $row)) {
-                    $row[$this->createdField] = $date;
-                }
-
-                if ($this->useTimestamps && $this->updatedField && ! array_key_exists($this->updatedField, $row)) {
-                    $row[$this->updatedField] = $date;
-                }
+                $row  = $this->setCreatedField($row, $date);
+                $row  = $this->setUpdatedField($row, $date);
             }
         }
 
@@ -899,11 +938,12 @@ abstract class BaseModel
      * it will attempt to convert it into an array.
      *
      * @param array|int|string|null $id
-     * @param array|object|null     $data
+     * @param array|object|null     $row Row data
+     * @phpstan-param row_array|object|null $row
      *
      * @throws ReflectionException
      */
-    public function update($id = null, $data = null): bool
+    public function update($id = null, $row = null): bool
     {
         if (is_bool($id)) {
             throw new InvalidArgumentException('update(): argument #1 ($id) should not be boolean.');
@@ -913,30 +953,28 @@ abstract class BaseModel
             $id = [$id];
         }
 
-        $data = $this->transformDataToArray($data, 'update');
+        $row = $this->transformDataToArray($row, 'update');
 
         // Validate data before saving.
-        if (! $this->skipValidation && ! $this->validate($data)) {
+        if (! $this->skipValidation && ! $this->validate($row)) {
             return false;
         }
 
         // Must be called first, so we don't
         // strip out updated_at values.
-        $data = $this->doProtectFields($data);
+        $row = $this->doProtectFields($row);
 
         // doProtectFields() can further remove elements from
-        // $data, so we need to check for empty dataset again
-        if (empty($data)) {
+        // $row, so we need to check for empty dataset again
+        if ($row === []) {
             throw DataException::forEmptyDataset('update');
         }
 
-        if ($this->useTimestamps && $this->updatedField && ! array_key_exists($this->updatedField, $data)) {
-            $data[$this->updatedField] = $this->setDate();
-        }
+        $row = $this->setUpdatedField($row, $this->setDate());
 
         $eventData = [
             'id'   => $id,
-            'data' => $data,
+            'data' => $row,
         ];
 
         if ($this->tempAllowCallbacks) {
@@ -961,7 +999,8 @@ abstract class BaseModel
     /**
      * Compiles an update and runs the query.
      *
-     * @param array|null  $set       An associative array of update values
+     * @param list<array|object>|null $set an associative array of insert values
+     * @phpstan-param list<row_array|object>|null $set
      * @param string|null $index     The where key
      * @param int         $batchSize The size of the batch to run
      * @param bool        $returnSQL True means SQL is returned, false will execute the query
@@ -975,7 +1014,7 @@ abstract class BaseModel
     {
         if (is_array($set)) {
             foreach ($set as &$row) {
-                // If $data is using a custom class with public or protected
+                // If $row is using a custom class with public or protected
                 // properties representing the collection elements, we need to grab
                 // them as an array.
                 if (is_object($row) && ! $row instanceof stdClass) {
@@ -1015,9 +1054,7 @@ abstract class BaseModel
                     $row[$index] = $updateIndex;
                 }
 
-                if ($this->useTimestamps && $this->updatedField && ! array_key_exists($this->updatedField, $row)) {
-                    $row[$this->updatedField] = $this->setDate();
-                }
+                $row = $this->setUpdatedField($row, $this->setDate());
             }
         }
 
@@ -1136,23 +1173,22 @@ abstract class BaseModel
     /**
      * Compiles a replace and runs the query.
      *
-     * @param array|null $data      Data
-     * @param bool       $returnSQL Set to true to return Query String
+     * @param array|null $row Row data
+     * @phpstan-param row_array|null $row
+     * @param bool $returnSQL Set to true to return Query String
      *
      * @return BaseResult|false|Query|string
      */
-    public function replace(?array $data = null, bool $returnSQL = false)
+    public function replace(?array $row = null, bool $returnSQL = false)
     {
         // Validate data before saving.
-        if ($data && ! $this->skipValidation && ! $this->validate($data)) {
+        if (($row !== null) && ! $this->skipValidation && ! $this->validate($row)) {
             return false;
         }
 
-        if ($this->useTimestamps && $this->updatedField && ! array_key_exists($this->updatedField, (array) $data)) {
-            $data[$this->updatedField] = $this->setDate();
-        }
+        $row = $this->setUpdatedField((array) $row, $this->setDate());
 
-        return $this->doReplace($data, $returnSQL);
+        return $this->doReplace($row, $returnSQL);
     }
 
     /**
@@ -1240,46 +1276,48 @@ abstract class BaseModel
      * Ensures that only the fields that are allowed to be updated are
      * in the data array.
      *
-     * Used by update() and updateBatch() to protect against mass assignment
-     * vulnerabilities.
+     * @used-by update() to protect against mass assignment vulnerabilities.
+     * @used-by updateBatch() to protect against mass assignment vulnerabilities.
      *
-     * @param array $data Data
+     * @param array $row Row data
+     * @phpstan-param row_array $row
      *
      * @throws DataException
      */
-    protected function doProtectFields(array $data): array
+    protected function doProtectFields(array $row): array
     {
         if (! $this->protectFields) {
-            return $data;
+            return $row;
         }
 
-        if (empty($this->allowedFields)) {
+        if ($this->allowedFields === []) {
             throw DataException::forInvalidAllowedFields(static::class);
         }
 
-        foreach (array_keys($data) as $key) {
+        foreach (array_keys($row) as $key) {
             if (! in_array($key, $this->allowedFields, true)) {
-                unset($data[$key]);
+                unset($row[$key]);
             }
         }
 
-        return $data;
+        return $row;
     }
 
     /**
      * Ensures that only the fields that are allowed to be inserted are in
      * the data array.
      *
-     * Used by insert() and insertBatch() to protect against mass assignment
-     * vulnerabilities.
+     * @used-by insert() to protect against mass assignment vulnerabilities.
+     * @used-by insertBatch() to protect against mass assignment vulnerabilities.
      *
-     * @param array $data Data
+     * @param array $row Row data
+     * @phpstan-param row_array $row
      *
      * @throws DataException
      */
-    protected function doProtectFieldsForInsert(array $data): array
+    protected function doProtectFieldsForInsert(array $row): array
     {
-        return $this->doProtectFields($data);
+        return $this->doProtectFields($row);
     }
 
     /**
@@ -1464,35 +1502,36 @@ abstract class BaseModel
     }
 
     /**
-     * Validate the data against the validation rules (or the validation group)
+     * Validate the row data against the validation rules (or the validation group)
      * specified in the class property, $validationRules.
      *
-     * @param array|object $data Data
+     * @param array|object $row Row data
+     * @phpstan-param row_array|object $row
      */
-    public function validate($data): bool
+    public function validate($row): bool
     {
         $rules = $this->getValidationRules();
 
-        if ($this->skipValidation || empty($rules) || empty($data)) {
+        // Validation requires array, so cast away.
+        if (is_object($row)) {
+            $row = (array) $row;
+        }
+
+        if ($this->skipValidation || $rules === [] || $row === []) {
             return true;
         }
 
-        // Validation requires array, so cast away.
-        if (is_object($data)) {
-            $data = (array) $data;
-        }
-
-        $rules = $this->cleanValidationRules ? $this->cleanValidationRules($rules, $data) : $rules;
+        $rules = $this->cleanValidationRules ? $this->cleanValidationRules($rules, $row) : $rules;
 
         // If no data existed that needs validation
         // our job is done here.
-        if (empty($rules)) {
+        if ($rules === []) {
             return true;
         }
 
         $this->validation->reset()->setRules($rules, $this->validationMessages);
 
-        return $this->validation->run($data, null, $this->DBGroup);
+        return $this->validation->run($row, null, $this->DBGroup);
     }
 
     /**
@@ -1536,17 +1575,18 @@ abstract class BaseModel
      * currently so that rules don't block updating when only updating
      * a partial row.
      *
-     * @param array      $rules Array containing field name and rule
-     * @param array|null $data  Data
+     * @param array $rules Array containing field name and rule
+     * @param array $row   Row data (@TODO Remove null in param type)
+     * @phpstan-param row_array $row
      */
-    protected function cleanValidationRules(array $rules, ?array $data = null): array
+    protected function cleanValidationRules(array $rules, ?array $row = null): array
     {
-        if (empty($data)) {
+        if ($row === null || $row === []) {
             return [];
         }
 
         foreach (array_keys($rules) as $field) {
-            if (! array_key_exists($field, $data)) {
+            if (! array_key_exists($field, $row)) {
                 unset($rules[$field]);
             }
         }
@@ -1594,7 +1634,7 @@ abstract class BaseModel
     protected function trigger(string $event, array $eventData)
     {
         // Ensure it's a valid event
-        if (! isset($this->{$event}) || empty($this->{$event})) {
+        if (! isset($this->{$event}) || $this->{$event} === []) {
             return $eventData;
         }
 
@@ -1644,52 +1684,63 @@ abstract class BaseModel
      * This method uses objectToRawArray() internally and does conversion
      * to string on all Time instances
      *
-     * @param object|string $data        Data
-     * @param bool          $onlyChanged Only Changed Property
-     * @param bool          $recursive   If true, inner entities will be cast as array as well
+     * @param object $object      Object
+     * @param bool   $onlyChanged Only Changed Property
+     * @param bool   $recursive   If true, inner entities will be cast as array as well
      *
-     * @return array Array
+     * @return array<string, mixed>
      *
      * @throws ReflectionException
      */
-    protected function objectToArray($data, bool $onlyChanged = true, bool $recursive = false): array
+    protected function objectToArray($object, bool $onlyChanged = true, bool $recursive = false): array
     {
-        $properties = $this->objectToRawArray($data, $onlyChanged, $recursive);
-
-        assert(is_array($properties));
+        $properties = $this->objectToRawArray($object, $onlyChanged, $recursive);
 
         // Convert any Time instances to appropriate $dateFormat
-        if ($properties !== []) {
-            $properties = array_map(function ($value) {
-                if ($value instanceof Time) {
-                    return $this->timeToDate($value);
-                }
+        return $this->timeToString($properties);
+    }
 
-                return $value;
-            }, $properties);
+    /**
+     * Convert any Time instances to appropriate $dateFormat.
+     *
+     * @param array<string, mixed> $properties
+     *
+     * @return array<string, mixed>
+     */
+    protected function timeToString(array $properties): array
+    {
+        if ($properties === []) {
+            return [];
         }
 
-        return $properties;
+        return array_map(function ($value) {
+            if ($value instanceof Time) {
+                return $this->timeToDate($value);
+            }
+
+            return $value;
+        }, $properties);
     }
 
     /**
      * Takes a class and returns an array of its public and protected
      * properties as an array with raw values.
      *
-     * @param object|string $data        Data
-     * @param bool          $onlyChanged Only Changed Property
-     * @param bool          $recursive   If true, inner entities will be casted as array as well
+     * @param object $object      Object
+     * @param bool   $onlyChanged Only Changed Property
+     * @param bool   $recursive   If true, inner entities will be casted as array as well
      *
-     * @return array|null Array
+     * @return array<string, mixed>
      *
      * @throws ReflectionException
      */
-    protected function objectToRawArray($data, bool $onlyChanged = true, bool $recursive = false): ?array
+    protected function objectToRawArray($object, bool $onlyChanged = true, bool $recursive = false): array
     {
-        if (method_exists($data, 'toRawArray')) {
-            $properties = $data->toRawArray($onlyChanged, $recursive);
+        // Entity::toRawArray() returns array.
+        if (method_exists($object, 'toRawArray')) {
+            $properties = $object->toRawArray($onlyChanged, $recursive);
         } else {
-            $mirror = new ReflectionClass($data);
+            $mirror = new ReflectionClass($object);
             $props  = $mirror->getProperties(ReflectionProperty::IS_PUBLIC | ReflectionProperty::IS_PROTECTED);
 
             $properties = [];
@@ -1699,7 +1750,7 @@ abstract class BaseModel
             foreach ($props as $prop) {
                 // Must make protected values accessible.
                 $prop->setAccessible(true);
-                $properties[$prop->getName()] = $prop->getValue($data);
+                $properties[$prop->getName()] = $prop->getValue($object);
             }
         }
 
@@ -1709,47 +1760,48 @@ abstract class BaseModel
     /**
      * Transform data to array.
      *
-     * @param array|object|null $data Data
-     * @param string            $type Type of data (insert|update)
+     * @param array|object|null $row Row data
+     * @phpstan-param row_array|object|null $row
+     * @param string $type Type of data (insert|update)
      *
      * @throws DataException
      * @throws InvalidArgumentException
      * @throws ReflectionException
      */
-    protected function transformDataToArray($data, string $type): array
+    protected function transformDataToArray($row, string $type): array
     {
         if (! in_array($type, ['insert', 'update'], true)) {
             throw new InvalidArgumentException(sprintf('Invalid type "%s" used upon transforming data to array.', $type));
         }
 
-        if (! $this->allowEmptyInserts && empty($data)) {
+        if (! $this->allowEmptyInserts && ($row === null || (array) $row === [])) {
             throw DataException::forEmptyDataset($type);
         }
 
-        // If $data is using a custom class with public or protected
+        // If $row is using a custom class with public or protected
         // properties representing the collection elements, we need to grab
         // them as an array.
-        if (is_object($data) && ! $data instanceof stdClass) {
+        if (is_object($row) && ! $row instanceof stdClass) {
             // If it validates with entire rules, all fields are needed.
             $onlyChanged = ($this->skipValidation === false && $this->cleanValidationRules === false)
                 ? false : ($type === 'update');
 
-            $data = $this->objectToArray($data, $onlyChanged, true);
+            $row = $this->objectToArray($row, $onlyChanged, true);
         }
 
         // If it's still a stdClass, go ahead and convert to
         // an array so doProtectFields and other model methods
         // don't have to do special checks.
-        if (is_object($data)) {
-            $data = (array) $data;
+        if (is_object($row)) {
+            $row = (array) $row;
         }
 
-        // If it's still empty here, means $data is no change or is empty object
-        if (! $this->allowEmptyInserts && empty($data)) {
+        // If it's still empty here, means $row is no change or is empty object
+        if (! $this->allowEmptyInserts && ($row === null || $row === [])) {
             throw DataException::forEmptyDataset($type);
         }
 
-        return $data;
+        return $row;
     }
 
     /**
@@ -1829,7 +1881,7 @@ abstract class BaseModel
             $replacements['{' . $key . '}'] = $value;
         }
 
-        if (! empty($replacements)) {
+        if ($replacements !== []) {
             foreach ($rules as &$rule) {
                 if (is_array($rule)) {
                     foreach ($rule as &$row) {
diff --git a/system/CLI/BaseCommand.php b/system/CLI/BaseCommand.php
index c4448d56..8101283b 100644
--- a/system/CLI/BaseCommand.php
+++ b/system/CLI/BaseCommand.php
@@ -19,14 +19,14 @@ use Throwable;
 /**
  * BaseCommand is the base class used in creating CLI commands.
  *
- * @property array           $arguments
- * @property Commands        $commands
- * @property string          $description
- * @property string          $group
- * @property LoggerInterface $logger
- * @property string          $name
- * @property array           $options
- * @property string          $usage
+ * @property array<string, string> $arguments
+ * @property Commands              $commands
+ * @property string                $description
+ * @property string                $group
+ * @property LoggerInterface       $logger
+ * @property string                $name
+ * @property array<string, string> $options
+ * @property string                $usage
  */
 abstract class BaseCommand
 {
@@ -62,14 +62,14 @@ abstract class BaseCommand
     /**
      * the Command's options description
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $options = [];
 
     /**
      * the Command's Arguments description
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $arguments = [];
 
@@ -143,7 +143,7 @@ abstract class BaseCommand
         } else {
             $usage = $this->name;
 
-            if (! empty($this->arguments)) {
+            if ($this->arguments !== []) {
                 $usage .= ' [arguments]';
             }
         }
@@ -156,7 +156,7 @@ abstract class BaseCommand
             CLI::write($this->setPad($this->description, 0, 0, 2));
         }
 
-        if (! empty($this->arguments)) {
+        if ($this->arguments !== []) {
             CLI::newLine();
             CLI::write(lang('CLI.helpArguments'), 'yellow');
             $length = max(array_map('strlen', array_keys($this->arguments)));
@@ -166,7 +166,7 @@ abstract class BaseCommand
             }
         }
 
-        if (! empty($this->options)) {
+        if ($this->options !== []) {
             CLI::newLine();
             CLI::write(lang('CLI.helpOptions'), 'yellow');
             $length = max(array_map('strlen', array_keys($this->options)));
diff --git a/system/CLI/CLI.php b/system/CLI/CLI.php
index 50a846a2..9a50e403 100644
--- a/system/CLI/CLI.php
+++ b/system/CLI/CLI.php
@@ -252,7 +252,7 @@ class CLI
 
             unset($opts[0]);
 
-            if (empty($opts)) {
+            if ($opts === []) {
                 $extraOutput = $extraOutputDefault;
             } else {
                 $extraOutput  = '[' . $extraOutputDefault . ', ' . implode(', ', $opts) . ']';
@@ -324,7 +324,7 @@ class CLI
         $opts               = $options;
         unset($opts[0]);
 
-        if (empty($opts)) {
+        if ($opts === []) {
             $extraOutput = $extraOutputDefault;
         } else {
             $optsKey = [];
@@ -849,7 +849,7 @@ class CLI
      */
     public static function wrap(?string $string = null, int $max = 0, int $padLeft = 0): string
     {
-        if (empty($string)) {
+        if ($string === null || $string === '') {
             return '';
         }
 
@@ -1000,7 +1000,7 @@ class CLI
      */
     public static function getOptionString(bool $useLongOpts = false, bool $trim = false): string
     {
-        if (empty(static::$options)) {
+        if (static::$options === []) {
             return '';
         }
 
@@ -1041,7 +1041,7 @@ class CLI
         $tableRows = [];
 
         // We need only indexes and not keys
-        if (! empty($thead)) {
+        if ($thead !== []) {
             $tableRows[] = array_values($thead);
         }
 
@@ -1115,7 +1115,7 @@ class CLI
             $table .= '| ' . implode(' | ', $tableRows[$row]) . ' |' . PHP_EOL;
 
             // Set the thead and table borders-bottom
-            if (($row === 0 && ! empty($thead)) || ($row + 1 === $totalRows)) {
+            if (($row === 0 && $thead !== []) || ($row + 1 === $totalRows)) {
                 $table .= $cols . PHP_EOL;
             }
         }
diff --git a/system/Cache/CacheFactory.php b/system/Cache/CacheFactory.php
index 95e07ef8..6402b002 100644
--- a/system/Cache/CacheFactory.php
+++ b/system/Cache/CacheFactory.php
@@ -40,6 +40,9 @@ class CacheFactory
     /**
      * Attempts to create the desired cache handler, based upon the
      *
+     * @param non-empty-string|null $handler
+     * @param non-empty-string|null $backup
+     *
      * @return CacheInterface
      */
     public static function getHandler(Cache $config, ?string $handler = null, ?string $backup = null)
@@ -52,8 +55,8 @@ class CacheFactory
             throw CacheException::forNoBackup();
         }
 
-        $handler = ! empty($handler) ? $handler : $config->handler;
-        $backup  = ! empty($backup) ? $backup : $config->backupHandler;
+        $handler ??= $config->handler;
+        $backup ??= $config->backupHandler;
 
         if (! array_key_exists($handler, $config->validHandlers) || ! array_key_exists($backup, $config->validHandlers)) {
             throw CacheException::forHandlerNotFound();
diff --git a/system/Cache/Handlers/BaseHandler.php b/system/Cache/Handlers/BaseHandler.php
index c12b330b..061a4a66 100644
--- a/system/Cache/Handlers/BaseHandler.php
+++ b/system/Cache/Handlers/BaseHandler.php
@@ -76,10 +76,9 @@ abstract class BaseHandler implements CacheInterface
     /**
      * Get an item from the cache, or execute the given Closure and store the result.
      *
-     * @param string  $key      Cache item name
-     * @param int     $ttl      Time to live
-     * @param Closure $callback Callback return value
-     * @phpstan-param Closure(): mixed $callback
+     * @param string           $key      Cache item name
+     * @param int              $ttl      Time to live
+     * @param Closure(): mixed $callback Callback return value
      *
      * @return array|bool|float|int|object|string|null
      */
diff --git a/system/Cache/Handlers/FileHandler.php b/system/Cache/Handlers/FileHandler.php
index e22543d2..0a39c361 100644
--- a/system/Cache/Handlers/FileHandler.php
+++ b/system/Cache/Handlers/FileHandler.php
@@ -150,8 +150,8 @@ class FileHandler extends BaseHandler
      */
     public function increment(string $key, int $offset = 1)
     {
-        $key = static::validateKey($key, $this->prefix);
-        $tmp = $this->getItem($key);
+        $prefixedKey = static::validateKey($key, $this->prefix);
+        $tmp         = $this->getItem($prefixedKey);
 
         if ($tmp === false) {
             $tmp = ['data' => 0, 'ttl' => 60];
@@ -222,8 +222,7 @@ class FileHandler extends BaseHandler
      * Does the heavy lifting of actually retrieving the file and
      * verifying it's age.
      *
-     * @return array<string, mixed>|false
-     * @phpstan-return array{data: mixed, ttl: int, time: int}|false
+     * @return array{data: mixed, ttl: int, time: int}|false
      */
     protected function getItem(string $filename)
     {
diff --git a/system/Cache/Handlers/RedisHandler.php b/system/Cache/Handlers/RedisHandler.php
index 42b44cd9..953de2dc 100644
--- a/system/Cache/Handlers/RedisHandler.php
+++ b/system/Cache/Handlers/RedisHandler.php
@@ -245,6 +245,7 @@ class RedisHandler extends BaseHandler
         if ($value !== null) {
             $time = Time::now()->getTimestamp();
             $ttl  = $this->redis->ttl(static::validateKey($key, $this->prefix));
+            assert(is_int($ttl));
 
             return [
                 'expire' => $ttl > 0 ? $time + $ttl : null,
diff --git a/system/CodeIgniter.php b/system/CodeIgniter.php
index 9f9f6e17..46eb419f 100644
--- a/system/CodeIgniter.php
+++ b/system/CodeIgniter.php
@@ -54,7 +54,7 @@ class CodeIgniter
     /**
      * The current version of CodeIgniter Framework
      */
-    public const CI_VERSION = '4.4.3';
+    public const CI_VERSION = '4.4.5';
 
     /**
      * App startup time.
@@ -108,7 +108,7 @@ class CodeIgniter
     /**
      * Controller to use.
      *
-     * @var Closure|string
+     * @var (Closure(mixed...): ResponseInterface|string)|string|null
      */
     protected $controller;
 
@@ -138,7 +138,7 @@ class CodeIgniter
     /**
      * Request path to use.
      *
-     * @var string
+     * @var string|null
      *
      * @deprecated No longer used.
      */
@@ -302,7 +302,7 @@ class CodeIgniter
         Kint::$display_called_from = $config->displayCalledFrom;
         Kint::$expanded            = $config->expanded;
 
-        if (! empty($config->plugins) && is_array($config->plugins)) {
+        if (isset($config->plugins) && is_array($config->plugins)) {
             Kint::$plugins = $config->plugins;
         }
 
@@ -315,10 +315,10 @@ class CodeIgniter
         RichRenderer::$theme  = $config->richTheme;
         RichRenderer::$folder = $config->richFolder;
         RichRenderer::$sort   = $config->richSort;
-        if (! empty($config->richObjectPlugins) && is_array($config->richObjectPlugins)) {
+        if (isset($config->richObjectPlugins) && is_array($config->richObjectPlugins)) {
             RichRenderer::$value_plugins = $config->richObjectPlugins;
         }
-        if (! empty($config->richTabPlugins) && is_array($config->richTabPlugins)) {
+        if (isset($config->richTabPlugins) && is_array($config->richTabPlugins)) {
             RichRenderer::$tab_plugins = $config->richTabPlugins;
         }
 
@@ -848,11 +848,10 @@ class CodeIgniter
      */
     protected function determinePath()
     {
-        if (! empty($this->path)) {
-            return $this->path;
-        }
-
-        return method_exists($this->request, 'getPath') ? $this->request->getPath() : $this->request->getUri()->getPath();
+        return $this->path ??
+            (method_exists($this->request, 'getPath')
+                ? $this->request->getPath()
+                : $this->request->getUri()->getPath());
     }
 
     /**
@@ -892,7 +891,7 @@ class CodeIgniter
         }
 
         // No controller specified - we don't know what to do now.
-        if (empty($this->controller)) {
+        if (! isset($this->controller)) {
             throw PageNotFoundException::forEmptyController();
         }
 
@@ -1091,7 +1090,7 @@ class CodeIgniter
 
         $method = $this->request->getPost('_method');
 
-        if (empty($method)) {
+        if ($method === null) {
             return;
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Commands/Cache/ClearCache.php b/system/Commands/Cache/ClearCache.php
index b903425b..79fab9df 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Cache/ClearCache.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Cache/ClearCache.php
@@ -52,7 +52,7 @@ class ClearCache extends BaseCommand
     /**
      * the Command's Arguments
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $arguments = [
         'driver' => 'The cache driver to use',
diff --git a/system/Commands/Database/Migrate.php b/system/Commands/Database/Migrate.php
index bcf71cad..11933517 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Database/Migrate.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Database/Migrate.php
@@ -53,7 +53,7 @@ class Migrate extends BaseCommand
     /**
      * the Command's Options
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $options = [
         '-n'    => 'Set migration namespace',
diff --git a/system/Commands/Database/MigrateRefresh.php b/system/Commands/Database/MigrateRefresh.php
index 689c7542..f683219e 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Database/MigrateRefresh.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Database/MigrateRefresh.php
@@ -52,7 +52,7 @@ class MigrateRefresh extends BaseCommand
     /**
      * the Command's Options
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $options = [
         '-n'    => 'Set migration namespace',
diff --git a/system/Commands/Database/MigrateRollback.php b/system/Commands/Database/MigrateRollback.php
index c104a81f..2df223c0 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Database/MigrateRollback.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Database/MigrateRollback.php
@@ -54,7 +54,7 @@ class MigrateRollback extends BaseCommand
     /**
      * the Command's Options
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $options = [
         '-b' => 'Specify a batch to roll back to; e.g. "3" to return to batch #3',
diff --git a/system/Commands/Database/ShowTableInfo.php b/system/Commands/Database/ShowTableInfo.php
index 07aa60c9..4c8f1bfd 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Database/ShowTableInfo.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Database/ShowTableInfo.php
@@ -84,7 +84,7 @@ class ShowTableInfo extends BaseCommand
     ];
 
     /**
-     * @phpstan-var  list<list<string|int>> Table Data.
+     * @var list<list<int|string>> Table Data.
      */
     private array $tbody;
 
@@ -125,7 +125,7 @@ class ShowTableInfo extends BaseCommand
         $limitRows       = (int) ($params['limit-rows'] ?? 10);
         $limitFieldValue = (int) ($params['limit-field-value'] ?? 15);
 
-        if (! in_array($tableName, $tables, true)) {
+        while (! in_array($tableName, $tables, true)) {
             $tableNameNo = CLI::promptByKey(
                 ['Here is the list of your database tables:', 'Which table do you want to see?'],
                 $tables,
@@ -133,7 +133,7 @@ class ShowTableInfo extends BaseCommand
             );
             CLI::newLine();
 
-            $tableName = $tables[$tableNameNo];
+            $tableName = $tables[$tableNameNo] ?? null;
         }
 
         if (array_key_exists('metadata', $params)) {
diff --git a/system/Commands/Encryption/GenerateKey.php b/system/Commands/Encryption/GenerateKey.php
index 5837bfb0..419ae6ef 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Encryption/GenerateKey.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Encryption/GenerateKey.php
@@ -52,7 +52,7 @@ class GenerateKey extends BaseCommand
     /**
      * The command's options
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $options = [
         '--force'  => 'Force overwrite existing key in `.env` file.',
diff --git a/system/Commands/Generators/CellGenerator.php b/system/Commands/Generators/CellGenerator.php
index cdb819d8..358bacc0 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Generators/CellGenerator.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Generators/CellGenerator.php
@@ -40,7 +40,7 @@ class CellGenerator extends BaseCommand
      *
      * @var string
      */
-    protected $description = 'Generates a new Cell file and its view.';
+    protected $description = 'Generates a new Controlled Cell file and its view.';
 
     /**
      * The Command's Usage
@@ -52,16 +52,16 @@ class CellGenerator extends BaseCommand
     /**
      * The Command's Arguments
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $arguments = [
-        'name' => 'The cell class name.',
+        'name' => 'The Controlled Cell class name.',
     ];
 
     /**
      * The Command's Options
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $options = [
         '--namespace' => 'Set root namespace. Default: "APP_NAMESPACE".',
diff --git a/system/Commands/Generators/CommandGenerator.php b/system/Commands/Generators/CommandGenerator.php
index 7ccae13f..b844666a 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Generators/CommandGenerator.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Generators/CommandGenerator.php
@@ -53,7 +53,7 @@ class CommandGenerator extends BaseCommand
     /**
      * The Command's Arguments
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $arguments = [
         'name' => 'The command class name.',
@@ -62,12 +62,12 @@ class CommandGenerator extends BaseCommand
     /**
      * The Command's Options
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $options = [
         '--command'   => 'The command name. Default: "command:name"',
         '--type'      => 'The command type. Options [basic, generator]. Default: "basic".',
-        '--group'     => 'The command group. Default: [basic -> "CodeIgniter", generator -> "Generators"].',
+        '--group'     => 'The command group. Default: [basic -> "App", generator -> "Generators"].',
         '--namespace' => 'Set root namespace. Default: "APP_NAMESPACE".',
         '--suffix'    => 'Append the component title to the class name (e.g. User => UserCommand).',
         '--force'     => 'Force overwrite existing file.',
@@ -106,7 +106,7 @@ class CommandGenerator extends BaseCommand
         }
 
         if (! is_string($group)) {
-            $group = $type === 'generator' ? 'Generators' : 'CodeIgniter';
+            $group = $type === 'generator' ? 'Generators' : 'App';
         }
 
         return $this->parseTemplate(
diff --git a/system/Commands/Generators/ConfigGenerator.php b/system/Commands/Generators/ConfigGenerator.php
index 606af47b..a83a9671 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Generators/ConfigGenerator.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Generators/ConfigGenerator.php
@@ -52,7 +52,7 @@ class ConfigGenerator extends BaseCommand
     /**
      * The Command's Arguments
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $arguments = [
         'name' => 'The config class name.',
@@ -61,7 +61,7 @@ class ConfigGenerator extends BaseCommand
     /**
      * The Command's Options
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $options = [
         '--namespace' => 'Set root namespace. Default: "APP_NAMESPACE".',
diff --git a/system/Commands/Generators/ControllerGenerator.php b/system/Commands/Generators/ControllerGenerator.php
index f27c77ee..2cf912b1 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Generators/ControllerGenerator.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Generators/ControllerGenerator.php
@@ -56,7 +56,7 @@ class ControllerGenerator extends BaseCommand
     /**
      * The Command's Arguments
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $arguments = [
         'name' => 'The controller class name.',
@@ -65,7 +65,7 @@ class ControllerGenerator extends BaseCommand
     /**
      * The Command's Options
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $options = [
         '--bare'      => 'Extends from CodeIgniter\Controller instead of BaseController.',
diff --git a/system/Commands/Generators/EntityGenerator.php b/system/Commands/Generators/EntityGenerator.php
index 8cd84785..bd20daf5 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Generators/EntityGenerator.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Generators/EntityGenerator.php
@@ -52,7 +52,7 @@ class EntityGenerator extends BaseCommand
     /**
      * The Command's Arguments
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $arguments = [
         'name' => 'The entity class name.',
@@ -61,7 +61,7 @@ class EntityGenerator extends BaseCommand
     /**
      * The Command's Options
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $options = [
         '--namespace' => 'Set root namespace. Default: "APP_NAMESPACE".',
diff --git a/system/Commands/Generators/FilterGenerator.php b/system/Commands/Generators/FilterGenerator.php
index 02060b02..620bee5a 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Generators/FilterGenerator.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Generators/FilterGenerator.php
@@ -52,7 +52,7 @@ class FilterGenerator extends BaseCommand
     /**
      * The Command's Arguments
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $arguments = [
         'name' => 'The filter class name.',
@@ -61,7 +61,7 @@ class FilterGenerator extends BaseCommand
     /**
      * The Command's Options
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $options = [
         '--namespace' => 'Set root namespace. Default: "APP_NAMESPACE".',
diff --git a/system/Commands/Generators/MigrateCreate.php b/system/Commands/Generators/MigrateCreate.php
index 0b493534..a2fa6bf7 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Generators/MigrateCreate.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Generators/MigrateCreate.php
@@ -55,7 +55,7 @@ class MigrateCreate extends BaseCommand
     /**
      * The Command's arguments.
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $arguments = [
         'name' => 'The migration file name.',
@@ -64,7 +64,7 @@ class MigrateCreate extends BaseCommand
     /**
      * The Command's options.
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $options = [
         '--namespace' => 'Set root namespace. Defaults to APP_NAMESPACE',
diff --git a/system/Commands/Generators/MigrationGenerator.php b/system/Commands/Generators/MigrationGenerator.php
index 82428a69..52f9e6e5 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Generators/MigrationGenerator.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Generators/MigrationGenerator.php
@@ -56,7 +56,7 @@ class MigrationGenerator extends BaseCommand
     /**
      * The Command's Arguments
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $arguments = [
         'name' => 'The migration class name.',
@@ -65,7 +65,7 @@ class MigrationGenerator extends BaseCommand
     /**
      * The Command's Options
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $options = [
         '--session'   => 'Generates the migration file for database sessions.',
diff --git a/system/Commands/Generators/ModelGenerator.php b/system/Commands/Generators/ModelGenerator.php
index eb0a1aa9..f4946a94 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Generators/ModelGenerator.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Generators/ModelGenerator.php
@@ -53,7 +53,7 @@ class ModelGenerator extends BaseCommand
     /**
      * The Command's Arguments
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $arguments = [
         'name' => 'The model class name.',
@@ -62,7 +62,7 @@ class ModelGenerator extends BaseCommand
     /**
      * The Command's Options
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $options = [
         '--table'     => 'Supply a table name. Default: "the lowercased plural of the class name".',
diff --git a/system/Commands/Generators/ScaffoldGenerator.php b/system/Commands/Generators/ScaffoldGenerator.php
index 351ee009..ef34b92e 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Generators/ScaffoldGenerator.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Generators/ScaffoldGenerator.php
@@ -53,7 +53,7 @@ class ScaffoldGenerator extends BaseCommand
     /**
      * The Command's Arguments
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $arguments = [
         'name' => 'The class name',
@@ -62,7 +62,7 @@ class ScaffoldGenerator extends BaseCommand
     /**
      * The Command's Options
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $options = [
         '--bare'      => 'Add the "--bare" option to controller component.',
diff --git a/system/Commands/Generators/SeederGenerator.php b/system/Commands/Generators/SeederGenerator.php
index 09a1037f..e60525ae 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Generators/SeederGenerator.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Generators/SeederGenerator.php
@@ -52,7 +52,7 @@ class SeederGenerator extends BaseCommand
     /**
      * The Command's Arguments
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $arguments = [
         'name' => 'The seeder class name.',
@@ -61,7 +61,7 @@ class SeederGenerator extends BaseCommand
     /**
      * The Command's Options
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $options = [
         '--namespace' => 'Set root namespace. Default: "APP_NAMESPACE".',
diff --git a/system/Commands/Generators/SessionMigrationGenerator.php b/system/Commands/Generators/SessionMigrationGenerator.php
index a04527e8..cb7da589 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Generators/SessionMigrationGenerator.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Generators/SessionMigrationGenerator.php
@@ -59,7 +59,7 @@ class SessionMigrationGenerator extends BaseCommand
     /**
      * The Command's Options
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $options = [
         '-t' => 'Supply a table name.',
diff --git a/system/Commands/Generators/ValidationGenerator.php b/system/Commands/Generators/ValidationGenerator.php
index 0c58ca5b..1b2efb8d 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Generators/ValidationGenerator.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Generators/ValidationGenerator.php
@@ -52,7 +52,7 @@ class ValidationGenerator extends BaseCommand
     /**
      * The Command's Arguments
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $arguments = [
         'name' => 'The validation class name.',
@@ -61,7 +61,7 @@ class ValidationGenerator extends BaseCommand
     /**
      * The Command's Options
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $options = [
         '--namespace' => 'Set root namespace. Default: "APP_NAMESPACE".',
diff --git a/system/Commands/Generators/Views/controller.tpl.php b/system/Commands/Generators/Views/controller.tpl.php
index de4447c5..2fe99e1b 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Generators/Views/controller.tpl.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Generators/Views/controller.tpl.php
@@ -3,6 +3,7 @@
 namespace {namespace};
 
 use {useStatement};
+use CodeIgniter\HTTP\ResponseInterface;
 
 class {class} extends {extends}
 {
@@ -10,7 +11,7 @@ class {class} extends {extends}
     /**
      * Return an array of resource objects, themselves in array format
      *
-     * @return mixed
+     * @return ResponseInterface
      */
     public function index()
     {
@@ -20,7 +21,7 @@ class {class} extends {extends}
     /**
      * Return the properties of a resource object
      *
-     * @return mixed
+     * @return ResponseInterface
      */
     public function show($id = null)
     {
@@ -30,7 +31,7 @@ class {class} extends {extends}
     /**
      * Return a new resource object, with default properties
      *
-     * @return mixed
+     * @return ResponseInterface
      */
     public function new()
     {
@@ -40,7 +41,7 @@ class {class} extends {extends}
     /**
      * Create a new resource object, from "posted" parameters
      *
-     * @return mixed
+     * @return ResponseInterface
      */
     public function create()
     {
@@ -50,7 +51,7 @@ class {class} extends {extends}
     /**
      * Return the editable properties of a resource object
      *
-     * @return mixed
+     * @return ResponseInterface
      */
     public function edit($id = null)
     {
@@ -60,7 +61,7 @@ class {class} extends {extends}
     /**
      * Add or update a model resource, from "posted" properties
      *
-     * @return mixed
+     * @return ResponseInterface
      */
     public function update($id = null)
     {
@@ -70,7 +71,7 @@ class {class} extends {extends}
     /**
      * Delete the designated resource object from the model
      *
-     * @return mixed
+     * @return ResponseInterface
      */
     public function delete($id = null)
     {
@@ -80,7 +81,7 @@ class {class} extends {extends}
     /**
      * Present a view of resource objects
      *
-     * @return mixed
+     * @return ResponseInterface
      */
     public function index()
     {
@@ -90,9 +91,9 @@ class {class} extends {extends}
     /**
      * Present a view to present a specific resource object
      *
-     * @param mixed $id
+     * @param string $id
      *
-     * @return mixed
+     * @return ResponseInterface
      */
     public function show($id = null)
     {
diff --git a/system/Commands/Generators/Views/filter.tpl.php b/system/Commands/Generators/Views/filter.tpl.php
index c080e920..767ac0bd 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Generators/Views/filter.tpl.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Generators/Views/filter.tpl.php
@@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ class {class} implements FilterInterface
      * @param RequestInterface $request
      * @param array|null       $arguments
      *
-     * @return mixed
+     * @return RequestInterface|ResponseInterface|string|void
      */
     public function before(RequestInterface $request, $arguments = null)
     {
@@ -38,7 +38,7 @@ class {class} implements FilterInterface
      * @param ResponseInterface $response
      * @param array|null        $arguments
      *
-     * @return mixed
+     * @return ResponseInterface|void
      */
     public function after(RequestInterface $request, ResponseInterface $response, $arguments = null)
     {
diff --git a/system/Commands/Generators/Views/model.tpl.php b/system/Commands/Generators/Views/model.tpl.php
index b9b9c99e..72509cdb 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Generators/Views/model.tpl.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Generators/Views/model.tpl.php
@@ -17,6 +17,8 @@ class {class} extends Model
     protected $protectFields    = true;
     protected $allowedFields    = [];
 
+    protected bool $allowEmptyInserts = false;
+
     // Dates
     protected $useTimestamps = false;
     protected $dateFormat    = 'datetime';
diff --git a/system/Commands/Help.php b/system/Commands/Help.php
index 74dcbeab..338a5c86 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Help.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Help.php
@@ -53,7 +53,7 @@ class Help extends BaseCommand
     /**
      * the Command's Arguments
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $arguments = [
         'command_name' => 'The command name [default: "help"]',
@@ -62,7 +62,7 @@ class Help extends BaseCommand
     /**
      * the Command's Options
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $options = [];
 
diff --git a/system/Commands/Housekeeping/ClearLogs.php b/system/Commands/Housekeeping/ClearLogs.php
index eb2489c5..56cfeab3 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Housekeeping/ClearLogs.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Housekeeping/ClearLogs.php
@@ -51,7 +51,7 @@ class ClearLogs extends BaseCommand
     /**
      * The Command's options
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $options = [
         '--force' => 'Force delete of all logs files without prompting.',
diff --git a/system/Commands/ListCommands.php b/system/Commands/ListCommands.php
index 0c808322..9accecf0 100644
--- a/system/Commands/ListCommands.php
+++ b/system/Commands/ListCommands.php
@@ -54,14 +54,14 @@ class ListCommands extends BaseCommand
     /**
      * the Command's Arguments
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $arguments = [];
 
     /**
      * the Command's Options
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $options = [
         '--simple' => 'Prints a list of the commands with no other info',
diff --git a/system/Commands/Server/Serve.php b/system/Commands/Server/Serve.php
index 2dc9e5dd..b5382020 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Server/Serve.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Server/Serve.php
@@ -54,7 +54,7 @@ class Serve extends BaseCommand
     /**
      * Arguments
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $arguments = [];
 
@@ -75,7 +75,7 @@ class Serve extends BaseCommand
     /**
      * Options
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $options = [
         '--php'  => 'The PHP Binary [default: "PHP_BINARY"]',
diff --git a/system/Commands/Utilities/Environment.php b/system/Commands/Utilities/Environment.php
index b844e7a2..fd8f68fa 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Utilities/Environment.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Utilities/Environment.php
@@ -62,7 +62,7 @@ final class Environment extends BaseCommand
     /**
      * The Command's options
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $options = [];
 
diff --git a/system/Commands/Utilities/FilterCheck.php b/system/Commands/Utilities/FilterCheck.php
index d2eb2fb7..1b9937d2 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Utilities/FilterCheck.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Utilities/FilterCheck.php
@@ -57,13 +57,13 @@ class FilterCheck extends BaseCommand
      */
     protected $arguments = [
         'method' => 'The HTTP method. get, post, put, etc.',
-        'route'  => 'The route (URI path) to check filtes.',
+        'route'  => 'The route (URI path) to check filters.',
     ];
 
     /**
      * the Command's Options
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $options = [];
 
diff --git a/system/Commands/Utilities/Namespaces.php b/system/Commands/Utilities/Namespaces.php
index ef37736c..71461933 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Utilities/Namespaces.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Utilities/Namespaces.php
@@ -57,14 +57,14 @@ class Namespaces extends BaseCommand
     /**
      * the Command's Arguments
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $arguments = [];
 
     /**
      * the Command's Options
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $options = [
         '-c' => 'Show only CodeIgniter config namespaces.',
diff --git a/system/Commands/Utilities/Publish.php b/system/Commands/Utilities/Publish.php
index cfed0472..1e4103c1 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Utilities/Publish.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Utilities/Publish.php
@@ -63,7 +63,7 @@ class Publish extends BaseCommand
     /**
      * the Command's Options
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $options = [];
 
diff --git a/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes.php b/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes.php
index b3693ec6..5d20da07 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes.php
@@ -61,7 +61,7 @@ class Routes extends BaseCommand
     /**
      * the Command's Arguments
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     protected $arguments = [];
 
diff --git a/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/AutoRouteCollector.php b/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/AutoRouteCollector.php
index ee331332..cc45608f 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/AutoRouteCollector.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/AutoRouteCollector.php
@@ -37,8 +37,7 @@ final class AutoRouteCollector
     }
 
     /**
-     * @return array<int, array<int, string>>
-     * @phpstan-return list<list<string>>
+     * @return list<list<string>>
      */
     public function get(): array
     {
diff --git a/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/AutoRouterImproved/AutoRouteCollector.php b/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/AutoRouterImproved/AutoRouteCollector.php
index 0b9089ce..18a158cf 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/AutoRouterImproved/AutoRouteCollector.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/AutoRouterImproved/AutoRouteCollector.php
@@ -62,8 +62,7 @@ final class AutoRouteCollector
     }
 
     /**
-     * @return array<int, array<int, string>>
-     * @phpstan-return list<list<string>>
+     * @return list<list<string>>
      */
     public function get(): array
     {
diff --git a/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/AutoRouterImproved/ControllerMethodReader.php b/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/AutoRouterImproved/ControllerMethodReader.php
index a8b6912d..a077633f 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/AutoRouterImproved/ControllerMethodReader.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/AutoRouterImproved/ControllerMethodReader.php
@@ -11,6 +11,7 @@
 
 namespace CodeIgniter\Commands\Utilities\Routes\AutoRouterImproved;
 
+use Config\Routing;
 use ReflectionClass;
 use ReflectionMethod;
 
@@ -27,11 +28,12 @@ final class ControllerMethodReader
     private string $namespace;
 
     /**
-     * @var array<int, string>
-     * @phpstan-var list<string>
+     * @var list<string>
      */
     private array $httpMethods;
 
+    private bool $translateURIDashes;
+
     /**
      * @param string $namespace the default namespace
      */
@@ -39,15 +41,17 @@ final class ControllerMethodReader
     {
         $this->namespace   = $namespace;
         $this->httpMethods = $httpMethods;
+
+        $config                   = config(Routing::class);
+        $this->translateURIDashes = $config->translateURIDashes;
     }
 
     /**
      * Returns found route info in the controller.
      *
-     * @phpstan-param class-string $class
+     * @param class-string $class
      *
-     * @return array<int, array<string, array|string>>
-     * @phpstan-return list<array<string, string|array>>
+     * @return list<array<string, array|string>>
      */
     public function read(string $class, string $defaultController = 'Home', string $defaultMethod = 'index'): array
     {
@@ -69,7 +73,7 @@ final class ControllerMethodReader
             foreach ($this->httpMethods as $httpVerb) {
                 if (strpos($methodName, $httpVerb) === 0) {
                     // Remove HTTP verb prefix.
-                    $methodInUri = lcfirst(substr($methodName, strlen($httpVerb)));
+                    $methodInUri = $this->getUriByMethod($httpVerb, $methodName);
 
                     // Check if it is the default method.
                     if ($methodInUri === $defaultMethod) {
@@ -154,7 +158,7 @@ final class ControllerMethodReader
     }
 
     /**
-     * @phpstan-param class-string $classname
+     * @param class-string $classname
      *
      * @return string URI path part from the folder(s) and controller
      */
@@ -173,13 +177,33 @@ final class ControllerMethodReader
             $classPath .= lcfirst($part) . '/';
         }
 
-        return rtrim($classPath, '/');
+        $classUri = rtrim($classPath, '/');
+
+        if ($this->translateURIDashes) {
+            $classUri = str_replace('_', '-', $classUri);
+        }
+
+        return $classUri;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * @return string URI path part from the method
+     */
+    private function getUriByMethod(string $httpVerb, string $methodName): string
+    {
+        $methodUri = lcfirst(substr($methodName, strlen($httpVerb)));
+
+        if ($this->translateURIDashes) {
+            $methodUri = str_replace('_', '-', $methodUri);
+        }
+
+        return $methodUri;
     }
 
     /**
      * Gets a route for the default controller.
      *
-     * @phpstan-return list<array>
+     * @return list<array>
      */
     private function getRouteForDefaultController(
         string $classShortname,
diff --git a/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/ControllerFinder.php b/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/ControllerFinder.php
index f801d531..3982c454 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/ControllerFinder.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/ControllerFinder.php
@@ -38,8 +38,7 @@ final class ControllerFinder
     }
 
     /**
-     * @return string[]
-     * @phpstan-return class-string[]
+     * @return class-string[]
      */
     public function find(): array
     {
@@ -66,7 +65,7 @@ final class ControllerFinder
                 $classnameOrEmpty = $this->locator->getClassname($file);
 
                 if ($classnameOrEmpty !== '') {
-                    /** @phpstan-var class-string $classname */
+                    /** @var class-string $classname */
                     $classname = $classnameOrEmpty;
 
                     $classes[] = $classname;
diff --git a/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/ControllerMethodReader.php b/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/ControllerMethodReader.php
index eb0152de..31bcde12 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/ControllerMethodReader.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/ControllerMethodReader.php
@@ -35,10 +35,9 @@ final class ControllerMethodReader
     }
 
     /**
-     * @phpstan-param class-string $class
+     * @param class-string $class
      *
-     * @return array<int, array{route: string, handler: string}>
-     * @phpstan-return list<array{route: string, handler: string}>
+     * @return list<array{route: string, handler: string}>
      */
     public function read(string $class, string $defaultController = 'Home', string $defaultMethod = 'index'): array
     {
@@ -128,7 +127,7 @@ final class ControllerMethodReader
     }
 
     /**
-     * @phpstan-param class-string $classname
+     * @param class-string $classname
      *
      * @return string URI path part from the folder(s) and controller
      */
diff --git a/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/SampleURIGenerator.php b/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/SampleURIGenerator.php
index 38b333fd..43d19344 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/SampleURIGenerator.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/SampleURIGenerator.php
@@ -13,6 +13,7 @@ namespace CodeIgniter\Commands\Utilities\Routes;
 
 use CodeIgniter\Config\Services;
 use CodeIgniter\Router\RouteCollection;
+use Config\App;
 
 /**
  * Generate a sample URI path from route key regex.
@@ -51,6 +52,14 @@ final class SampleURIGenerator
     {
         $sampleUri = $routeKey;
 
+        if (strpos($routeKey, '{locale}') !== false) {
+            $sampleUri = str_replace(
+                '{locale}',
+                config(App::class)->defaultLocale,
+                $routeKey
+            );
+        }
+
         foreach ($this->routes->getPlaceholders() as $placeholder => $regex) {
             $sample = $this->samples[$placeholder] ?? '::unknown::';
 
diff --git a/system/Common.php b/system/Common.php
index 80dca72c..690fa3fc 100644
--- a/system/Common.php
+++ b/system/Common.php
@@ -25,9 +25,7 @@ use CodeIgniter\HTTP\Exceptions\RedirectException;
 use CodeIgniter\HTTP\IncomingRequest;
 use CodeIgniter\HTTP\RedirectResponse;
 use CodeIgniter\HTTP\RequestInterface;
-use CodeIgniter\HTTP\Response;
 use CodeIgniter\HTTP\ResponseInterface;
-use CodeIgniter\HTTP\URI;
 use CodeIgniter\Model;
 use CodeIgniter\Session\Session;
 use CodeIgniter\Test\TestLogger;
@@ -290,20 +288,24 @@ if (! function_exists('csrf_hash')) {
 if (! function_exists('csrf_field')) {
     /**
      * Generates a hidden input field for use within manually generated forms.
+     *
+     * @param non-empty-string|null $id
      */
     function csrf_field(?string $id = null): string
     {
-        return '<input type="hidden"' . (! empty($id) ? ' id="' . esc($id, 'attr') . '"' : '') . ' name="' . csrf_token() . '" value="' . csrf_hash() . '"' . _solidus() . '>';
+        return '<input type="hidden"' . ($id !== null ? ' id="' . esc($id, 'attr') . '"' : '') . ' name="' . csrf_token() . '" value="' . csrf_hash() . '"' . _solidus() . '>';
     }
 }
 
 if (! function_exists('csrf_meta')) {
     /**
      * Generates a meta tag for use within javascript calls.
+     *
+     * @param non-empty-string|null $id
      */
     function csrf_meta(?string $id = null): string
     {
-        return '<meta' . (! empty($id) ? ' id="' . esc($id, 'attr') . '"' : '') . ' name="' . csrf_header() . '" content="' . csrf_hash() . '"' . _solidus() . '>';
+        return '<meta' . ($id !== null ? ' id="' . esc($id, 'attr') . '"' : '') . ' name="' . csrf_header() . '" content="' . csrf_hash() . '"' . _solidus() . '>';
     }
 }
 
@@ -502,27 +504,11 @@ if (! function_exists('force_https')) {
             Services::session()->regenerate(); // @codeCoverageIgnore
         }
 
-        $baseURL = config(App::class)->baseURL;
-
-        if (strpos($baseURL, 'https://') === 0) {
-            $authority = substr($baseURL, strlen('https://'));
-        } elseif (strpos($baseURL, 'http://') === 0) {
-            $authority = substr($baseURL, strlen('http://'));
-        } else {
-            $authority = $baseURL;
-        }
-
-        $uri = URI::createURIString(
-            'https',
-            $authority,
-            $request->getUri()->getPath(), // Absolute URIs should use a "/" for an empty path
-            $request->getUri()->getQuery(),
-            $request->getUri()->getFragment()
-        );
+        $uri = $request->getUri()->withScheme('https');
 
         // Set an HSTS header
         $response->setHeader('Strict-Transport-Security', 'max-age=' . $duration)
-            ->redirect($uri)
+            ->redirect((string) $uri)
             ->setStatusCode(307)
             ->setBody('')
             ->getCookieStore()
@@ -755,7 +741,7 @@ if (! function_exists('lang')) {
      * A convenience method to translate a string or array of them and format
      * the result with the intl extension's MessageFormatter.
      *
-     * @return string
+     * @return list<string>|string
      */
     function lang(string $line, array $args = [], ?string $locale = null)
     {
@@ -868,13 +854,13 @@ if (! function_exists('redirect')) {
      *
      * If more control is needed, you must use $response->redirect explicitly.
      *
-     * @param string|null $route Route name or Controller::method
+     * @param non-empty-string|null $route Route name or Controller::method
      */
     function redirect(?string $route = null): RedirectResponse
     {
         $response = Services::redirectresponse(null, true);
 
-        if (! empty($route)) {
+        if ($route !== null) {
             return $response->route($route);
         }
 
@@ -1139,15 +1125,17 @@ if (! function_exists('timer')) {
      * returns its return value if any.
      * Otherwise will start or stop the timer intelligently.
      *
-     * @phpstan-param (callable(): mixed)|null $callable
+     * @param non-empty-string|null    $name
+     * @param (callable(): mixed)|null $callable
      *
-     * @return Timer
+     * @return mixed|Timer
+     * @phpstan-return ($name is null ? Timer : ($callable is (callable(): mixed) ? mixed : Timer))
      */
     function timer(?string $name = null, ?callable $callable = null)
     {
         $timer = Services::timer();
 
-        if (empty($name)) {
+        if ($name === null) {
             return $timer;
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Config/AutoloadConfig.php b/system/Config/AutoloadConfig.php
index da08dd6f..33c977cc 100644
--- a/system/Config/AutoloadConfig.php
+++ b/system/Config/AutoloadConfig.php
@@ -45,8 +45,7 @@ class AutoloadConfig
      * but this should be done prior to creating any namespaced classes,
      * else you will need to modify all of those classes for this to work.
      *
-     * @var array<string, array<int, string>|string>
-     * @phpstan-var array<string, string|list<string>>
+     * @var array<string, list<string>|string>
      */
     public $psr4 = [];
 
@@ -72,8 +71,7 @@ class AutoloadConfig
      * that will be autoloaded. This can be useful for bootstrap operations
      * or for loading functions.
      *
-     * @var array<int, string>
-     * @phpstan-var list<string>
+     * @var list<string>
      */
     public $files = [];
 
diff --git a/system/Config/BaseService.php b/system/Config/BaseService.php
index 22daf7b6..1c80c80d 100644
--- a/system/Config/BaseService.php
+++ b/system/Config/BaseService.php
@@ -343,7 +343,7 @@ class BaseService
                 foreach ($files as $file) {
                     $classname = $locator->getClassname($file);
 
-                    if (! in_array($classname, [Services::class], true)) {
+                    if ($classname !== Services::class) {
                         static::$services[] = new $classname();
                     }
                 }
diff --git a/system/Config/Factories.php b/system/Config/Factories.php
index 8eb68b0d..c86bfd95 100644
--- a/system/Config/Factories.php
+++ b/system/Config/Factories.php
@@ -62,8 +62,7 @@ class Factories
      *
      * [component => [alias => FQCN]]
      *
-     * @var array<string, array<string, string>>
-     * @phpstan-var array<string, array<string, class-string>>
+     * @var array<string, array<string, class-string>>
      */
     protected static $aliases = [];
 
@@ -76,8 +75,7 @@ class Factories
      *
      * [component => [FQCN => instance]]
      *
-     * @var array<string, array<string, object>>
-     * @phpstan-var  array<string, array<class-string, object>>
+     * @var array<string, array<class-string, object>>
      */
     protected static $instances = [];
 
@@ -93,10 +91,9 @@ class Factories
     /**
      * Define the class to load. You can *override* the concrete class.
      *
-     * @param string $component Lowercase, plural component name
-     * @param string $alias     Class alias. See the $aliases property.
-     * @param string $classname FQCN to be loaded
-     * @phpstan-param class-string $classname FQCN to be loaded
+     * @param string       $component Lowercase, plural component name
+     * @param string       $alias     Class alias. See the $aliases property.
+     * @param class-string $classname FQCN to be loaded
      */
     public static function define(string $component, string $alias, string $classname): void
     {
diff --git a/system/Config/Publisher.php b/system/Config/Publisher.php
index fa04e24c..d5f938e0 100644
--- a/system/Config/Publisher.php
+++ b/system/Config/Publisher.php
@@ -26,7 +26,7 @@ class Publisher extends BaseConfig
      * result in a PublisherException. Files that do no fit the
      * pattern will cause copy/merge to fail.
      *
-     * @var array<string,string>
+     * @var array<string, string>
      */
     public $restrictions = [
         ROOTPATH => '*',
diff --git a/system/Config/Routing.php b/system/Config/Routing.php
index 409bcf09..e6d25138 100644
--- a/system/Config/Routing.php
+++ b/system/Config/Routing.php
@@ -24,7 +24,7 @@ class Routing extends BaseConfig
      * Default: APPPATH . 'Config/Routes.php'
      */
     public array $routeFiles = [
-        APPPATH . 'Routes.php',
+        APPPATH . 'Config/Routes.php',
     ];
 
     /**
@@ -95,4 +95,17 @@ class Routing extends BaseConfig
      * Default: false
      */
     public bool $prioritize = false;
+
+    /**
+     * Map of URI segments and namespaces. For Auto Routing (Improved).
+     *
+     * The key is the first URI segment. The value is the controller namespace.
+     * E.g.,
+     *   [
+     *       'blog' => 'Acme\Blog\Controllers',
+     *   ]
+     *
+     * @var array [ uri_segment => namespace ]
+     */
+    public array $moduleRoutes = [];
 }
diff --git a/system/Config/View.php b/system/Config/View.php
index 5a6a6404..101b67f5 100644
--- a/system/Config/View.php
+++ b/system/Config/View.php
@@ -16,8 +16,8 @@ use CodeIgniter\View\ViewDecoratorInterface;
 /**
  * View configuration
  *
- * @phpstan-type ParserCallable (callable(mixed): mixed)
- * @phpstan-type ParserCallableString (callable(mixed): mixed)&string
+ * @phpstan-type parser_callable (callable(mixed): mixed)
+ * @phpstan-type parser_callable_string (callable(mixed): mixed)&string
  */
 class View extends BaseConfig
 {
@@ -40,7 +40,7 @@ class View extends BaseConfig
      * @psalm-suppress UndefinedDocblockClass
      *
      * @var array<string, string>
-     * @phpstan-var array<string, ParserCallableString>
+     * @phpstan-var array<string, parser_callable_string>
      */
     public $filters = [];
 
@@ -52,7 +52,7 @@ class View extends BaseConfig
      * @psalm-suppress UndefinedDocblockClass
      *
      * @var array<string, array<string>|callable|string>
-     * @phpstan-var array<string, array<ParserCallableString>|ParserCallableString|ParserCallable>
+     * @phpstan-var array<string, array<parser_callable_string>|parser_callable_string|parser_callable>
      */
     public $plugins = [];
 
@@ -60,7 +60,7 @@ class View extends BaseConfig
      * Built-in View filters.
      *
      * @var array<string, string>
-     * @phpstan-var array<string, ParserCallableString>
+     * @phpstan-var array<string, parser_callable_string>
      */
     protected $coreFilters = [
         'abs'            => '\abs',
@@ -90,7 +90,7 @@ class View extends BaseConfig
      * Built-in View plugins.
      *
      * @var array<string, array<string>|callable|string>
-     * @phpstan-var array<string, array<ParserCallableString>|ParserCallableString|ParserCallable>
+     * @phpstan-var array<string, array<parser_callable_string>|parser_callable_string|parser_callable>
      */
     protected $corePlugins = [
         'csp_script_nonce'  => '\CodeIgniter\View\Plugins::cspScriptNonce',
diff --git a/system/Controller.php b/system/Controller.php
index 45fe0e49..a28a7a59 100644
--- a/system/Controller.php
+++ b/system/Controller.php
@@ -65,7 +65,7 @@ class Controller
     /**
      * Once validation has been run, will hold the Validation instance.
      *
-     * @var ValidationInterface
+     * @var ValidationInterface|null
      */
     protected $validator;
 
@@ -132,7 +132,7 @@ class Controller
      */
     protected function loadHelpers()
     {
-        if (empty($this->helpers)) {
+        if ($this->helpers === []) {
             return;
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Database/BaseBuilder.php b/system/Database/BaseBuilder.php
index 30202032..48302ab2 100644
--- a/system/Database/BaseBuilder.php
+++ b/system/Database/BaseBuilder.php
@@ -88,8 +88,7 @@ class BaseBuilder
      * QB keys
      * list of column names.
      *
-     * @var string[]
-     * @phpstan-var list<string>
+     * @var list<string>
      */
     protected $QBKeys = [];
 
@@ -131,8 +130,7 @@ class BaseBuilder
     /**
      * QB data sets
      *
-     * @var array[]|string[]
-     * @phpstan-var array<string, string>|list<list<string|int>>
+     * @var array<string, string>|list<list<int|string>>
      */
     protected $QBSet = [];
 
@@ -164,16 +162,18 @@ class BaseBuilder
      * Holds additional options and data used to render SQL
      * and is reset by resetWrite()
      *
-     * @phpstan-var array{
+     * @var array{
      *   updateFieldsAdditional?: array,
      *   tableIdentity?: string,
      *   updateFields?: array,
      *   constraints?: array,
      *   setQueryAsData?: string,
      *   sql?: string,
-     *   alias?: string
+     *   alias?: string,
+     *   fieldTypes?: array<string, array<string, string>>
      * }
-     * @var array
+     *
+     * fieldTypes: [ProtectedTableName => [FieldName => Type]]
      */
     protected $QBOptions;
 
@@ -321,7 +321,7 @@ class BaseBuilder
 
         $this->from($tableName);
 
-        if (! empty($options)) {
+        if ($options !== null && $options !== []) {
             foreach ($options as $key => $value) {
                 if (property_exists($this, $key)) {
                     $this->{$key} = $value;
@@ -923,6 +923,7 @@ class BaseBuilder
      * @used-by whereNotIn()
      * @used-by orWhereNotIn()
      *
+     * @param non-empty-string|null          $key
      * @param array|BaseBuilder|Closure|null $values The values searched on, or anonymous function with subquery
      *
      * @return $this
@@ -931,7 +932,7 @@ class BaseBuilder
      */
     protected function _whereIn(?string $key = null, $values = null, bool $not = false, string $type = 'AND ', ?bool $escape = null, string $clause = 'QBWhere')
     {
-        if (empty($key) || ! is_string($key)) {
+        if ($key === null || $key === '') {
             throw new InvalidArgumentException(sprintf('%s() expects $key to be a non-empty string', debug_backtrace(0, 2)[1]['function']));
         }
 
@@ -1437,7 +1438,7 @@ class BaseBuilder
     public function orderBy(string $orderBy, string $direction = '', ?bool $escape = null)
     {
         $qbOrderBy = [];
-        if (empty($orderBy)) {
+        if ($orderBy === '') {
             return $this;
         }
 
@@ -1493,7 +1494,7 @@ class BaseBuilder
             $this->QBLimit = $value;
         }
 
-        if (! empty($offset)) {
+        if ($offset !== null && $offset !== 0) {
             $this->QBOffset = $offset;
         }
 
@@ -1507,8 +1508,8 @@ class BaseBuilder
      */
     public function offset(int $offset)
     {
-        if (! empty($offset)) {
-            $this->QBOffset = (int) $offset;
+        if ($offset !== 0) {
+            $this->QBOffset = $offset;
         }
 
         return $this;
@@ -1739,7 +1740,7 @@ class BaseBuilder
             $this->where($where);
         }
 
-        if (! empty($limit)) {
+        if ($limit !== null && $limit !== 0) {
             $this->limit($limit, $offset);
         }
 
@@ -1760,6 +1761,8 @@ class BaseBuilder
     /**
      * Compiles batch insert/update/upsert strings and runs the queries
      *
+     * @param '_deleteBatch'|'_insertBatch'|'_updateBatch'|'_upsertBatch' $renderMethod
+     *
      * @return false|int|string[] Number of rows inserted or FALSE on failure, SQL array when testMode
      *
      * @throws DatabaseException
@@ -1967,11 +1970,9 @@ class BaseBuilder
      *
      * @used-by batchExecute
      *
-     * @param string   $table Protected table name
-     * @param string[] $keys  QBKeys
-     * @phpstan-param list<string> $keys QBKeys
-     * @param array<array<int|string>> $values QBSet
-     * @phpstan-param list<list<string|int>> $values QBSet
+     * @param string                 $table  Protected table name
+     * @param list<string>           $keys   QBKeys
+     * @param list<list<int|string>> $values QBSet
      */
     protected function _upsertBatch(string $table, array $keys, array $values): string
     {
@@ -2196,11 +2197,9 @@ class BaseBuilder
      *
      * @used-by batchExecute
      *
-     * @param string   $table Protected table name
-     * @param string[] $keys  QBKeys
-     * @phpstan-param list<string> $keys QBKeys
-     * @param array<array<int|string>> $values QBSet
-     * @phpstan-param list<list<string|int>> $values QBSet
+     * @param string                 $table  Protected table name
+     * @param list<string>           $keys   QBKeys
+     * @param list<list<int|string>> $values QBSet
      */
     protected function _insertBatch(string $table, array $keys, array $values): string
     {
@@ -2277,7 +2276,7 @@ class BaseBuilder
      *
      * @param array|object|null $set
      *
-     * @return bool
+     * @return BaseResult|bool|Query
      *
      * @throws DatabaseException
      */
@@ -2459,7 +2458,7 @@ class BaseBuilder
             $this->where($where);
         }
 
-        if (! empty($limit)) {
+        if ($limit !== null && $limit !== 0) {
             if (! $this->canLimitWhereUpdates) {
                 throw new DatabaseException('This driver does not allow LIMITs on UPDATE queries using WHERE.');
             }
@@ -2566,11 +2565,9 @@ class BaseBuilder
      *
      * @used-by batchExecute
      *
-     * @param string   $table Protected table name
-     * @param string[] $keys  QBKeys
-     * @phpstan-param list<string> $keys QBKeys
-     * @param array[] $values QBSet
-     * @phpstan-param list<list<string|int>> $values QBSet
+     * @param string                 $table  Protected table name
+     * @param list<string>           $keys   QBKeys
+     * @param list<list<int|string>> $values QBSet
      */
     protected function _updateBatch(string $table, array $keys, array $values): string
     {
@@ -2747,9 +2744,9 @@ class BaseBuilder
     /**
      * Compiles a delete string and runs the query
      *
-     * @param mixed $where
+     * @param array|RawSql|string $where
      *
-     * @return bool|string Returns a string if in test mode.
+     * @return bool|string Returns a SQL string if in test mode.
      *
      * @throws DatabaseException
      */
@@ -2771,7 +2768,7 @@ class BaseBuilder
 
         $sql = $this->_delete($this->removeAlias($table));
 
-        if (! empty($limit)) {
+        if ($limit !== null && $limit !== 0) {
             $this->QBLimit = $limit;
         }
 
@@ -2830,11 +2827,9 @@ class BaseBuilder
      *
      * @used-by batchExecute
      *
-     * @param string   $table Protected table name
-     * @param string[] $keys  QBKeys
-     * @phpstan-param list<string> $keys QBKeys
-     * @param array<array<int|string>> $values QBSet
-     * @phpstan-param list<list<string|int>> $values QBSet
+     * @param string       $table Protected table name
+     * @param list<string> $keys  QBKeys
+     * @paramst<string|int>> $values QBSet
      */
     protected function _deleteBatch(string $table, array $keys, array $values): string
     {
@@ -3183,7 +3178,7 @@ class BaseBuilder
      */
     protected function compileOrderBy(): string
     {
-        if (is_array($this->QBOrderBy) && ! empty($this->QBOrderBy)) {
+        if (is_array($this->QBOrderBy) && $this->QBOrderBy !== []) {
             foreach ($this->QBOrderBy as &$orderBy) {
                 if ($orderBy['escape'] !== false && ! $this->isLiteral($orderBy['field'])) {
                     $orderBy['field'] = $this->db->protectIdentifiers($orderBy['field']);
@@ -3276,7 +3271,7 @@ class BaseBuilder
     {
         $str = trim($str);
 
-        if (empty($str)
+        if ($str === ''
             || ctype_digit($str)
             || (string) (float) $str === $str
             || in_array(strtoupper($str), ['TRUE', 'FALSE'], true)
@@ -3412,8 +3407,7 @@ class BaseBuilder
     /**
      * Returns the SQL string operator from where key
      *
-     * @return array<int, string>|false
-     * @phpstan-return list<string>|false
+     * @return false|list<string>
      */
     private function getOperatorFromWhereKey(string $whereKey)
     {
diff --git a/system/Database/BaseResult.php b/system/Database/BaseResult.php
index c5f603a2..b807b0bb 100644
--- a/system/Database/BaseResult.php
+++ b/system/Database/BaseResult.php
@@ -174,7 +174,7 @@ abstract class BaseResult implements ResultInterface
      */
     public function getResultArray(): array
     {
-        if (! empty($this->resultArray)) {
+        if ($this->resultArray !== []) {
             return $this->resultArray;
         }
 
@@ -214,7 +214,7 @@ abstract class BaseResult implements ResultInterface
      */
     public function getResultObject(): array
     {
-        if (! empty($this->resultObject)) {
+        if ($this->resultObject !== []) {
             return $this->resultObject;
         }
 
@@ -254,14 +254,16 @@ abstract class BaseResult implements ResultInterface
      *
      * If row doesn't exist, returns null.
      *
-     * @param int    $n    The index of the results to return
-     * @param string $type The type of result object. 'array', 'object' or class name.
+     * @param int|string $n    The index of the results to return, or column name.
+     * @param string     $type The type of result object. 'array', 'object' or class name.
+     * @phpstan-param class-string|'array'|'object' $type
      *
      * @return array|object|stdClass|null
      * @phpstan-return ($type is 'object' ? stdClass|null : ($type is 'array' ? array|null : object|null))
      */
     public function getRow($n = 0, string $type = 'object')
     {
+        // $n is a column name.
         if (! is_numeric($n)) {
             // We cache the row data for subsequent uses
             if (! is_array($this->rowData)) {
@@ -321,7 +323,7 @@ abstract class BaseResult implements ResultInterface
     public function getRowArray(int $n = 0)
     {
         $result = $this->getResultArray();
-        if (empty($result)) {
+        if ($result === []) {
             return null;
         }
 
@@ -342,7 +344,7 @@ abstract class BaseResult implements ResultInterface
     public function getRowObject(int $n = 0)
     {
         $result = $this->getResultObject();
-        if (empty($result)) {
+        if ($result === []) {
             return null;
         }
 
@@ -390,7 +392,7 @@ abstract class BaseResult implements ResultInterface
     {
         $result = $this->getResult($type);
 
-        return (empty($result)) ? null : $result[0];
+        return ($result === []) ? null : $result[0];
     }
 
     /**
@@ -402,7 +404,7 @@ abstract class BaseResult implements ResultInterface
     {
         $result = $this->getResult($type);
 
-        return (empty($result)) ? null : $result[count($result) - 1];
+        return ($result === []) ? null : $result[count($result) - 1];
     }
 
     /**
@@ -413,7 +415,7 @@ abstract class BaseResult implements ResultInterface
     public function getNextRow(string $type = 'object')
     {
         $result = $this->getResult($type);
-        if (empty($result)) {
+        if ($result === []) {
             return null;
         }
 
@@ -428,7 +430,7 @@ abstract class BaseResult implements ResultInterface
     public function getPreviousRow(string $type = 'object')
     {
         $result = $this->getResult($type);
-        if (empty($result)) {
+        if ($result === []) {
             return null;
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Database/Config.php b/system/Database/Config.php
index 62fa7920..92556c6d 100644
--- a/system/Database/Config.php
+++ b/system/Database/Config.php
@@ -41,10 +41,9 @@ class Config extends BaseConfig
     /**
      * Returns the database connection
      *
-     * @param array|BaseConnection|string|null $group The name of the connection group to use,
-     *                                                or an array of configuration settings.
-     * @phpstan-param array|BaseConnection|non-empty-string|null $group
-     * @param bool $getShared Whether to return a shared instance of the connection.
+     * @param array|BaseConnection|non-empty-string|null $group     The name of the connection group to use,
+     *                                                              or an array of configuration settings.
+     * @param bool                                       $getShared Whether to return a shared instance of the connection.
      *
      * @return BaseConnection
      */
@@ -127,7 +126,7 @@ class Config extends BaseConfig
     /**
      * Returns a new instance of the Database Seeder.
      *
-     * @phpstan-param null|non-empty-string $group
+     * @param non-empty-string|null $group
      *
      * @return Seeder
      */
diff --git a/system/Database/Database.php b/system/Database/Database.php
index 2818fe22..58a63e15 100644
--- a/system/Database/Database.php
+++ b/system/Database/Database.php
@@ -104,7 +104,7 @@ class Database
             'database' => isset($dsn['path']) ? rawurldecode(substr($dsn['path'], 1)) : '',
         ];
 
-        if (! empty($dsn['query'])) {
+        if (isset($dsn['query']) && ($dsn['query'] !== '')) {
             parse_str($dsn['query'], $extra);
 
             foreach ($extra as $key => $val) {
diff --git a/system/Database/Forge.php b/system/Database/Forge.php
index ae26f6e7..adbdc208 100644
--- a/system/Database/Forge.php
+++ b/system/Database/Forge.php
@@ -32,14 +32,14 @@ class Forge
     /**
      * List of fields.
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, array|string> [name => attributes]
      */
     protected $fields = [];
 
     /**
      * List of keys.
      *
-     * @phpstan-var array{}|list<array{fields: string[], keyName: string}>
+     * @var list<array{fields?: string[], keyName?: string}>
      */
     protected $keys = [];
 
@@ -53,7 +53,7 @@ class Forge
     /**
      * Primary keys.
      *
-     * @phpstan-var array{}|array{fields: string[], keyName: string}
+     * @var array{fields?: string[], keyName?: string}
      */
     protected $primaryKeys = [];
 
@@ -351,14 +351,14 @@ class Forge
     /**
      * Add Field
      *
-     * @param array|string $field
+     * @param array<string, array|string>|string $fields Field array or Field string
      *
      * @return Forge
      */
-    public function addField($field)
+    public function addField($fields)
     {
-        if (is_string($field)) {
-            if ($field === 'id') {
+        if (is_string($fields)) {
+            if ($fields === 'id') {
                 $this->addField([
                     'id' => [
                         'type'           => 'INT',
@@ -368,27 +368,27 @@ class Forge
                 ]);
                 $this->addKey('id', true);
             } else {
-                if (strpos($field, ' ') === false) {
+                if (strpos($fields, ' ') === false) {
                     throw new InvalidArgumentException('Field information is required for that operation.');
                 }
 
-                $fieldName = explode(' ', $field, 2)[0];
+                $fieldName = explode(' ', $fields, 2)[0];
                 $fieldName = trim($fieldName, '`\'"');
 
-                $this->fields[$fieldName] = $field;
+                $this->fields[$fieldName] = $fields;
             }
         }
 
-        if (is_array($field)) {
-            foreach ($field as $idx => $f) {
-                if (is_string($f)) {
-                    $this->addField($f);
+        if (is_array($fields)) {
+            foreach ($fields as $name => $attributes) {
+                if (is_string($attributes)) {
+                    $this->addField($attributes);
 
                     continue;
                 }
 
-                if (is_array($f)) {
-                    $this->fields = array_merge($this->fields, [$idx => $f]);
+                if (is_array($attributes)) {
+                    $this->fields = array_merge($this->fields, [$name => $attributes]);
                 }
             }
         }
@@ -404,8 +404,14 @@ class Forge
      *
      * @throws DatabaseException
      */
-    public function addForeignKey($fieldName = '', string $tableName = '', $tableField = '', string $onUpdate = '', string $onDelete = '', string $fkName = ''): Forge
-    {
+    public function addForeignKey(
+        $fieldName = '',
+        string $tableName = '',
+        $tableField = '',
+        string $onUpdate = '',
+        string $onDelete = '',
+        string $fkName = ''
+    ): Forge {
         $fieldName  = (array) $fieldName;
         $tableField = (array) $tableField;
 
@@ -428,8 +434,9 @@ class Forge
      */
     public function dropKey(string $table, string $keyName, bool $prefixKeyName = true): bool
     {
-        $keyName             = $this->db->escapeIdentifiers(($prefixKeyName === true ? $this->db->DBPrefix : '') . $keyName);
-        $table               = $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($this->db->DBPrefix . $table);
+        $keyName = $this->db->escapeIdentifiers(($prefixKeyName === true ? $this->db->DBPrefix : '') . $keyName);
+        $table   = $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($this->db->DBPrefix . $table);
+
         $dropKeyAsConstraint = $this->dropKeyAsConstraint($table, $keyName);
 
         if ($dropKeyAsConstraint === true) {
@@ -458,7 +465,7 @@ class Forge
     }
 
     /**
-     * Checks if if key needs to be dropped as a constraint.
+     * Checks if key needs to be dropped as a constraint.
      */
     protected function dropKeyAsConstraint(string $table, string $constraintName): bool
     {
@@ -494,7 +501,7 @@ class Forge
     }
 
     /**
-     * @return BaseResult|bool|false|mixed|Query
+     * @return bool
      *
      * @throws DatabaseException
      */
@@ -518,7 +525,9 @@ class Forge
     }
 
     /**
-     * @return mixed
+     * @param array $attributes Table attributes
+     *
+     * @return bool
      *
      * @throws DatabaseException
      */
@@ -562,28 +571,30 @@ class Forge
     }
 
     /**
+     * @param array $attributes Table attributes
+     *
      * @return string SQL string
      *
      * @deprecated $ifNotExists is no longer used, and will be removed.
      */
     protected function _createTable(string $table, bool $ifNotExists, array $attributes)
     {
-        $columns = $this->_processFields(true);
+        $processedFields = $this->_processFields(true);
 
-        for ($i = 0, $c = count($columns); $i < $c; $i++) {
-            $columns[$i] = ($columns[$i]['_literal'] !== false) ? "\n\t" . $columns[$i]['_literal']
-                : "\n\t" . $this->_processColumn($columns[$i]);
+        for ($i = 0, $c = count($processedFields); $i < $c; $i++) {
+            $processedFields[$i] = ($processedFields[$i]['_literal'] !== false) ? "\n\t" . $processedFields[$i]['_literal']
+                : "\n\t" . $this->_processColumn($processedFields[$i]);
         }
 
-        $columns = implode(',', $columns);
+        $processedFields = implode(',', $processedFields);
 
-        $columns .= $this->_processPrimaryKeys($table);
-        $columns .= current($this->_processForeignKeys($table));
+        $processedFields .= $this->_processPrimaryKeys($table);
+        $processedFields .= current($this->_processForeignKeys($table));
 
         if ($this->createTableKeys === true) {
             $indexes = current($this->_processIndexes($table));
             if (is_string($indexes)) {
-                $columns .= $indexes;
+                $processedFields .= $indexes;
             }
         }
 
@@ -591,7 +602,7 @@ class Forge
             $this->createTableStr . '%s',
             'CREATE TABLE',
             $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($table),
-            $columns,
+            $processedFields,
             $this->_createTableAttributes($attributes)
         );
     }
@@ -610,7 +621,7 @@ class Forge
     }
 
     /**
-     * @return mixed
+     * @return bool
      *
      * @throws DatabaseException
      */
@@ -676,7 +687,7 @@ class Forge
     }
 
     /**
-     * @return mixed
+     * @return bool
      *
      * @throws DatabaseException
      */
@@ -716,23 +727,24 @@ class Forge
     }
 
     /**
-     * @param array|string $field
+     * @param array<string, array|string>|string $fields Field array or Field string
      *
      * @throws DatabaseException
      */
-    public function addColumn(string $table, $field): bool
+    public function addColumn(string $table, $fields): bool
     {
         // Work-around for literal column definitions
-        if (! is_array($field)) {
-            $field = [$field];
+        if (is_string($fields)) {
+            $fields = [$fields];
         }
 
-        foreach (array_keys($field) as $k) {
-            $this->addField([$k => $field[$k]]);
+        foreach (array_keys($fields) as $name) {
+            $this->addField([$name => $fields[$name]]);
         }
 
         $sqls = $this->_alterTable('ADD', $this->db->DBPrefix . $table, $this->_processFields());
         $this->reset();
+
         if ($sqls === false) {
             if ($this->db->DBDebug) {
                 throw new DatabaseException('This feature is not available for the database you are using.');
@@ -751,15 +763,16 @@ class Forge
     }
 
     /**
-     * @param array|string $columnName
+     * @param array|string $columnNames column names to DROP
      *
-     * @return mixed
+     * @return bool
      *
      * @throws DatabaseException
      */
-    public function dropColumn(string $table, $columnName)
+    public function dropColumn(string $table, $columnNames)
     {
-        $sql = $this->_alterTable('DROP', $this->db->DBPrefix . $table, $columnName);
+        $sql = $this->_alterTable('DROP', $this->db->DBPrefix . $table, $columnNames);
+
         if ($sql === false) {
             if ($this->db->DBDebug) {
                 throw new DatabaseException('This feature is not available for the database you are using.');
@@ -772,19 +785,19 @@ class Forge
     }
 
     /**
-     * @param array|string $field
+     * @param array<string, array|string>|string $fields Field array or Field string
      *
      * @throws DatabaseException
      */
-    public function modifyColumn(string $table, $field): bool
+    public function modifyColumn(string $table, $fields): bool
     {
         // Work-around for literal column definitions
-        if (! is_array($field)) {
-            $field = [$field];
+        if (is_string($fields)) {
+            $fields = [$fields];
         }
 
-        foreach (array_keys($field) as $k) {
-            $this->addField([$k => $field[$k]]);
+        foreach (array_keys($fields) as $name) {
+            $this->addField([$name => $fields[$name]]);
         }
 
         if ($this->fields === []) {
@@ -793,6 +806,7 @@ class Forge
 
         $sqls = $this->_alterTable('CHANGE', $this->db->DBPrefix . $table, $this->_processFields());
         $this->reset();
+
         if ($sqls === false) {
             if ($this->db->DBDebug) {
                 throw new DatabaseException('This feature is not available for the database you are using.');
@@ -813,48 +827,53 @@ class Forge
     }
 
     /**
-     * @param array|string $fields
+     * @param 'ADD'|'CHANGE'|'DROP' $alterType
+     * @param array|string          $processedFields Processed column definitions
+     *                                               or column names to DROP
      *
-     * @return false|string|string[]
+     * @return false|list<string>|string|null SQL string
+     * @phpstan-return ($alterType is 'DROP' ? string : list<string>|false|null)
      */
-    protected function _alterTable(string $alterType, string $table, $fields)
+    protected function _alterTable(string $alterType, string $table, $processedFields)
     {
         $sql = 'ALTER TABLE ' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($table) . ' ';
 
         // DROP has everything it needs now.
         if ($alterType === 'DROP') {
-            if (is_string($fields)) {
-                $fields = explode(',', $fields);
+            $columnNamesToDrop = $processedFields;
+
+            if (is_string($columnNamesToDrop)) {
+                $columnNamesToDrop = explode(',', $columnNamesToDrop);
             }
 
-            $fields = array_map(fn ($field) => 'DROP COLUMN ' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers(trim($field)), $fields);
+            $columnNamesToDrop = array_map(fn ($field) => 'DROP COLUMN ' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers(trim($field)), $columnNamesToDrop);
 
-            return $sql . implode(', ', $fields);
+            return $sql . implode(', ', $columnNamesToDrop);
         }
 
         $sql .= ($alterType === 'ADD') ? 'ADD ' : $alterType . ' COLUMN ';
 
         $sqls = [];
 
-        foreach ($fields as $data) {
-            $sqls[] = $sql . ($data['_literal'] !== false
-                ? $data['_literal']
-                : $this->_processColumn($data));
+        foreach ($processedFields as $field) {
+            $sqls[] = $sql . ($field['_literal'] !== false
+                ? $field['_literal']
+                : $this->_processColumn($field));
         }
 
         return $sqls;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Process fields
+     * Returns $processedFields array from $this->fields data.
      */
     protected function _processFields(bool $createTable = false): array
     {
-        $fields = [];
+        $processedFields = [];
 
-        foreach ($this->fields as $key => $attributes) {
+        foreach ($this->fields as $name => $attributes) {
             if (! is_array($attributes)) {
-                $fields[] = ['_literal' => $attributes];
+                $processedFields[] = ['_literal' => $attributes];
 
                 continue;
             }
@@ -870,7 +889,7 @@ class Forge
             }
 
             $field = [
-                'name'           => $key,
+                'name'           => $name,
                 'new_name'       => $attributes['NAME'] ?? null,
                 'type'           => $attributes['TYPE'] ?? null,
                 'length'         => '',
@@ -928,24 +947,24 @@ class Forge
                 $field['length'] = '(' . $attributes['CONSTRAINT'] . ')';
             }
 
-            $fields[] = $field;
+            $processedFields[] = $field;
         }
 
-        return $fields;
+        return $processedFields;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Process column
+     * Converts $processedField array to field definition string.
      */
-    protected function _processColumn(array $field): string
+    protected function _processColumn(array $processedField): string
     {
-        return $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($field['name'])
-            . ' ' . $field['type'] . $field['length']
-            . $field['unsigned']
-            . $field['default']
-            . $field['null']
-            . $field['auto_increment']
-            . $field['unique'];
+        return $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($processedField['name'])
+            . ' ' . $processedField['type'] . $processedField['length']
+            . $processedField['unsigned']
+            . $processedField['default']
+            . $processedField['null']
+            . $processedField['auto_increment']
+            . $processedField['unique'];
     }
 
     /**
@@ -1163,10 +1182,10 @@ class Forge
     {
         $errorNames = [];
 
-        foreach ($this->foreignKeys as $name) {
-            foreach ($name['field'] as $f) {
-                if (! isset($this->fields[$f])) {
-                    $errorNames[] = $f;
+        foreach ($this->foreignKeys as $fkeyInfo) {
+            foreach ($fkeyInfo['field'] as $fieldName) {
+                if (! isset($this->fields[$fieldName])) {
+                    $errorNames[] = $fieldName;
                 }
             }
         }
diff --git a/system/Database/Migration.php b/system/Database/Migration.php
index 1616830f..f12509d6 100644
--- a/system/Database/Migration.php
+++ b/system/Database/Migration.php
@@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ abstract class Migration
     /**
      * The name of the database group to use.
      *
-     * @var string
+     * @var string|null
      */
     protected $DBGroup;
 
@@ -39,12 +39,15 @@ abstract class Migration
      */
     protected $forge;
 
-    /**
-     * Constructor.
-     */
     public function __construct(?Forge $forge = null)
     {
-        $this->forge = $forge ?? Database::forge($this->DBGroup ?? config(Database::class)->defaultGroup);
+        if (isset($this->DBGroup)) {
+            $this->forge = Database::forge($this->DBGroup);
+        } elseif ($forge !== null) {
+            $this->forge = $forge;
+        } else {
+            $this->forge = Database::forge(config(Database::class)->defaultGroup);
+        }
 
         $this->db = $this->forge->getConnection();
     }
diff --git a/system/Database/MigrationRunner.php b/system/Database/MigrationRunner.php
index 241a9e6d..435c1185 100644
--- a/system/Database/MigrationRunner.php
+++ b/system/Database/MigrationRunner.php
@@ -122,14 +122,11 @@ class MigrationRunner
     protected $groupSkip = false;
 
     /**
-     * Constructor.
+     * The migration can manage multiple databases. So it should always use the
+     * default DB group so that it creates the `migrations` table in the default
+     * DB group. Therefore, passing $db is for testing purposes only.
      *
-     * When passing in $db, you may pass any of the following to connect:
-     * - group name
-     * - existing connection instance
-     * - array of database configuration values
-     *
-     * @param array|ConnectionInterface|string|null $db
+     * @param array|ConnectionInterface|string|null $db DB group. For testing purposes only.
      *
      * @throws ConfigException
      */
@@ -138,16 +135,12 @@ class MigrationRunner
         $this->enabled = $config->enabled ?? false;
         $this->table   = $config->table ?? 'migrations';
 
-        // Default name space is the app namespace
         $this->namespace = APP_NAMESPACE;
 
-        // get default database group
-        $config      = config(Database::class);
-        $this->group = $config->defaultGroup;
-        unset($config);
+        // Even if a DB connection is passed, since it is a test,
+        // it is assumed to use the default group name
+        $this->group = is_string($db) ? $db : config(Database::class)->defaultGroup;
 
-        // If no db connection passed in, use
-        // default database group.
         $this->db = db_connect($db);
     }
 
@@ -174,7 +167,7 @@ class MigrationRunner
 
         $migrations = $this->findMigrations();
 
-        if (empty($migrations)) {
+        if ($migrations === []) {
             return true;
         }
 
@@ -242,7 +235,7 @@ class MigrationRunner
             $targetBatch = $batches[count($batches) - 1 + $targetBatch] ?? 0;
         }
 
-        if (empty($batches) && $targetBatch === 0) {
+        if ($batches === [] && $targetBatch === 0) {
             return true;
         }
 
@@ -646,7 +639,7 @@ class MigrationRunner
         $builder = $this->db->table($this->table);
 
         // If group was specified then use it
-        if (! empty($group)) {
+        if ($group !== '') {
             $builder->where('group', $group);
         }
 
@@ -839,8 +832,9 @@ class MigrationRunner
             throw new RuntimeException($message);
         }
 
-        $instance = new $class();
-        $group    = $instance->getDBGroup() ?? config(Database::class)->defaultGroup;
+        /** @var Migration $instance */
+        $instance = new $class(Database::forge($this->db));
+        $group    = $instance->getDBGroup() ?? $this->group;
 
         if (ENVIRONMENT !== 'testing' && $group === 'tests' && $this->groupFilter !== 'tests') {
             // @codeCoverageIgnoreStart
@@ -856,8 +850,6 @@ class MigrationRunner
             return true;
         }
 
-        $this->setGroup($group);
-
         if (! is_callable([$instance, $direction])) {
             $message = sprintf(lang('Migrations.missingMethod'), $direction);
 
diff --git a/system/Database/MySQLi/Builder.php b/system/Database/MySQLi/Builder.php
index 2b95aedc..096bbedd 100644
--- a/system/Database/MySQLi/Builder.php
+++ b/system/Database/MySQLi/Builder.php
@@ -49,7 +49,7 @@ class Builder extends BaseBuilder
      */
     protected function _fromTables(): string
     {
-        if (! empty($this->QBJoin) && count($this->QBFrom) > 1) {
+        if ($this->QBJoin !== [] && count($this->QBFrom) > 1) {
             return '(' . implode(', ', $this->QBFrom) . ')';
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Database/MySQLi/Connection.php b/system/Database/MySQLi/Connection.php
index 45b306ce..3139185f 100644
--- a/system/Database/MySQLi/Connection.php
+++ b/system/Database/MySQLi/Connection.php
@@ -150,7 +150,7 @@ class Connection extends BaseConnection
                 $ssl['cipher'] = $this->encrypt['ssl_cipher'];
             }
 
-            if (! empty($ssl)) {
+            if ($ssl !== []) {
                 if (isset($this->encrypt['ssl_verify'])) {
                     if ($this->encrypt['ssl_verify']) {
                         if (defined('MYSQLI_OPT_SSL_VERIFY_SERVER_CERT')) {
diff --git a/system/Database/MySQLi/Forge.php b/system/Database/MySQLi/Forge.php
index 0d294c2d..b1beba2a 100644
--- a/system/Database/MySQLi/Forge.php
+++ b/system/Database/MySQLi/Forge.php
@@ -128,57 +128,59 @@ class Forge extends BaseForge
     /**
      * ALTER TABLE
      *
-     * @param string       $alterType ALTER type
-     * @param string       $table     Table name
-     * @param array|string $field     Column definition
+     * @param string       $alterType       ALTER type
+     * @param string       $table           Table name
+     * @param array|string $processedFields Processed column definitions
+     *                                      or column names to DROP
      *
-     * @return string|string[]
+     * @return list<string>|string SQL string
+     * @phpstan-return ($alterType is 'DROP' ? string : list<string>)
      */
-    protected function _alterTable(string $alterType, string $table, $field)
+    protected function _alterTable(string $alterType, string $table, $processedFields)
     {
         if ($alterType === 'DROP') {
-            return parent::_alterTable($alterType, $table, $field);
+            return parent::_alterTable($alterType, $table, $processedFields);
         }
 
         $sql = 'ALTER TABLE ' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($table);
 
-        foreach ($field as $i => $data) {
-            if ($data['_literal'] !== false) {
-                $field[$i] = ($alterType === 'ADD') ? "\n\tADD " . $data['_literal'] : "\n\tMODIFY " . $data['_literal'];
+        foreach ($processedFields as $i => $field) {
+            if ($field['_literal'] !== false) {
+                $processedFields[$i] = ($alterType === 'ADD') ? "\n\tADD " . $field['_literal'] : "\n\tMODIFY " . $field['_literal'];
             } else {
                 if ($alterType === 'ADD') {
-                    $field[$i]['_literal'] = "\n\tADD ";
+                    $processedFields[$i]['_literal'] = "\n\tADD ";
                 } else {
-                    $field[$i]['_literal'] = empty($data['new_name']) ? "\n\tMODIFY " : "\n\tCHANGE ";
+                    $processedFields[$i]['_literal'] = empty($field['new_name']) ? "\n\tMODIFY " : "\n\tCHANGE ";
                 }
 
-                $field[$i] = $field[$i]['_literal'] . $this->_processColumn($field[$i]);
+                $processedFields[$i] = $processedFields[$i]['_literal'] . $this->_processColumn($processedFields[$i]);
             }
         }
 
-        return [$sql . implode(',', $field)];
+        return [$sql . implode(',', $processedFields)];
     }
 
     /**
      * Process column
      */
-    protected function _processColumn(array $field): string
+    protected function _processColumn(array $processedField): string
     {
-        $extraClause = isset($field['after']) ? ' AFTER ' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($field['after']) : '';
+        $extraClause = isset($processedField['after']) ? ' AFTER ' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($processedField['after']) : '';
 
-        if (empty($extraClause) && isset($field['first']) && $field['first'] === true) {
+        if (empty($extraClause) && isset($processedField['first']) && $processedField['first'] === true) {
             $extraClause = ' FIRST';
         }
 
-        return $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($field['name'])
-                . (empty($field['new_name']) ? '' : ' ' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($field['new_name']))
-                . ' ' . $field['type'] . $field['length']
-                . $field['unsigned']
-                . $field['null']
-                . $field['default']
-                . $field['auto_increment']
-                . $field['unique']
-                . (empty($field['comment']) ? '' : ' COMMENT ' . $field['comment'])
+        return $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($processedField['name'])
+                . (empty($processedField['new_name']) ? '' : ' ' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($processedField['new_name']))
+                . ' ' . $processedField['type'] . $processedField['length']
+                . $processedField['unsigned']
+                . $processedField['null']
+                . $processedField['default']
+                . $processedField['auto_increment']
+                . $processedField['unique']
+                . (empty($processedField['comment']) ? '' : ' COMMENT ' . $processedField['comment'])
                 . $extraClause;
     }
 
diff --git a/system/Database/OCI8/Builder.php b/system/Database/OCI8/Builder.php
index bccb0bc5..f5527ce7 100644
--- a/system/Database/OCI8/Builder.php
+++ b/system/Database/OCI8/Builder.php
@@ -166,7 +166,7 @@ class Builder extends BaseBuilder
      */
     public function delete($where = '', ?int $limit = null, bool $resetData = true)
     {
-        if (! empty($limit)) {
+        if ($limit !== null && $limit !== 0) {
             $this->QBLimit = $limit;
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Database/OCI8/Forge.php b/system/Database/OCI8/Forge.php
index 6e1e85f6..2735b886 100644
--- a/system/Database/OCI8/Forge.php
+++ b/system/Database/OCI8/Forge.php
@@ -93,21 +93,29 @@ class Forge extends BaseForge
     /**
      * ALTER TABLE
      *
-     * @param string       $alterType ALTER type
-     * @param string       $table     Table name
-     * @param array|string $field     Column definition
+     * @param string       $alterType       ALTER type
+     * @param string       $table           Table name
+     * @param array|string $processedFields Processed column definitions
+     *                                      or column names to DROP
      *
-     * @return string|string[]
+     * @return list<string>|string SQL string
+     * @phpstan-return ($alterType is 'DROP' ? string : list<string>)
      */
-    protected function _alterTable(string $alterType, string $table, $field)
+    protected function _alterTable(string $alterType, string $table, $processedFields)
     {
         $sql = 'ALTER TABLE ' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($table);
 
         if ($alterType === 'DROP') {
-            $fields = array_map(fn ($field) => $this->db->escapeIdentifiers(trim($field)), is_string($field) ? explode(',', $field) : $field);
+            $columnNamesToDrop = $processedFields;
+
+            $fields = array_map(
+                fn ($field) => $this->db->escapeIdentifiers(trim($field)),
+                is_string($columnNamesToDrop) ? explode(',', $columnNamesToDrop) : $columnNamesToDrop
+            );
 
             return $sql . ' DROP (' . implode(',', $fields) . ') CASCADE CONSTRAINT INVALIDATE';
         }
+
         if ($alterType === 'CHANGE') {
             $alterType = 'MODIFY';
         }
@@ -115,50 +123,50 @@ class Forge extends BaseForge
         $nullableMap = array_column($this->db->getFieldData($table), 'nullable', 'name');
         $sqls        = [];
 
-        for ($i = 0, $c = count($field); $i < $c; $i++) {
+        for ($i = 0, $c = count($processedFields); $i < $c; $i++) {
             if ($alterType === 'MODIFY') {
                 // If a null constraint is added to a column with a null constraint,
                 // ORA-01451 will occur,
                 // so add null constraint is used only when it is different from the current null constraint.
                 // If a not null constraint is added to a column with a not null constraint,
                 // ORA-01442 will occur.
-                $wantToAddNull   = strpos($field[$i]['null'], ' NOT') === false;
-                $currentNullable = $nullableMap[$field[$i]['name']];
+                $wantToAddNull   = strpos($processedFields[$i]['null'], ' NOT') === false;
+                $currentNullable = $nullableMap[$processedFields[$i]['name']];
 
                 if ($wantToAddNull === true && $currentNullable === true) {
-                    $field[$i]['null'] = '';
-                } elseif ($field[$i]['null'] === '' && $currentNullable === false) {
+                    $processedFields[$i]['null'] = '';
+                } elseif ($processedFields[$i]['null'] === '' && $currentNullable === false) {
                     // Nullable by default
-                    $field[$i]['null'] = ' NULL';
+                    $processedFields[$i]['null'] = ' NULL';
                 } elseif ($wantToAddNull === false && $currentNullable === false) {
-                    $field[$i]['null'] = '';
+                    $processedFields[$i]['null'] = '';
                 }
             }
 
-            if ($field[$i]['_literal'] !== false) {
-                $field[$i] = "\n\t" . $field[$i]['_literal'];
+            if ($processedFields[$i]['_literal'] !== false) {
+                $processedFields[$i] = "\n\t" . $processedFields[$i]['_literal'];
             } else {
-                $field[$i]['_literal'] = "\n\t" . $this->_processColumn($field[$i]);
+                $processedFields[$i]['_literal'] = "\n\t" . $this->_processColumn($processedFields[$i]);
 
-                if (! empty($field[$i]['comment'])) {
+                if (! empty($processedFields[$i]['comment'])) {
                     $sqls[] = 'COMMENT ON COLUMN '
-                        . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($table) . '.' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($field[$i]['name'])
-                        . ' IS ' . $field[$i]['comment'];
+                        . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($table) . '.' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($processedFields[$i]['name'])
+                        . ' IS ' . $processedFields[$i]['comment'];
                 }
 
-                if ($alterType === 'MODIFY' && ! empty($field[$i]['new_name'])) {
-                    $sqls[] = $sql . ' RENAME COLUMN ' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($field[$i]['name'])
-                        . ' TO ' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($field[$i]['new_name']);
+                if ($alterType === 'MODIFY' && ! empty($processedFields[$i]['new_name'])) {
+                    $sqls[] = $sql . ' RENAME COLUMN ' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($processedFields[$i]['name'])
+                        . ' TO ' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($processedFields[$i]['new_name']);
                 }
 
-                $field[$i] = "\n\t" . $field[$i]['_literal'];
+                $processedFields[$i] = "\n\t" . $processedFields[$i]['_literal'];
             }
         }
 
         $sql .= ' ' . $alterType . ' ';
-        $sql .= count($field) === 1
-                ? $field[0]
-                : '(' . implode(',', $field) . ')';
+        $sql .= count($processedFields) === 1
+                ? $processedFields[0]
+                : '(' . implode(',', $processedFields) . ')';
 
         // RENAME COLUMN must be executed after MODIFY
         array_unshift($sqls, $sql);
@@ -184,26 +192,26 @@ class Forge extends BaseForge
     /**
      * Process column
      */
-    protected function _processColumn(array $field): string
+    protected function _processColumn(array $processedField): string
     {
         $constraint = '';
         // @todo: can't cover multi pattern when set type.
-        if ($field['type'] === 'VARCHAR2' && strpos($field['length'], "('") === 0) {
-            $constraint = ' CHECK(' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($field['name'])
-                . ' IN ' . $field['length'] . ')';
+        if ($processedField['type'] === 'VARCHAR2' && strpos($processedField['length'], "('") === 0) {
+            $constraint = ' CHECK(' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($processedField['name'])
+                . ' IN ' . $processedField['length'] . ')';
 
-            $field['length'] = '(' . max(array_map('mb_strlen', explode("','", mb_substr($field['length'], 2, -2)))) . ')' . $constraint;
-        } elseif (isset($this->primaryKeys['fields']) && count($this->primaryKeys['fields']) === 1 && $field['name'] === $this->primaryKeys['fields'][0]) {
-            $field['unique'] = '';
+            $processedField['length'] = '(' . max(array_map('mb_strlen', explode("','", mb_substr($processedField['length'], 2, -2)))) . ')' . $constraint;
+        } elseif (isset($this->primaryKeys['fields']) && count($this->primaryKeys['fields']) === 1 && $processedField['name'] === $this->primaryKeys['fields'][0]) {
+            $processedField['unique'] = '';
         }
 
-        return $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($field['name'])
-           . ' ' . $field['type'] . $field['length']
-           . $field['unsigned']
-           . $field['default']
-           . $field['auto_increment']
-           . $field['null']
-           . $field['unique'];
+        return $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($processedField['name'])
+           . ' ' . $processedField['type'] . $processedField['length']
+           . $processedField['unsigned']
+           . $processedField['default']
+           . $processedField['auto_increment']
+           . $processedField['null']
+           . $processedField['unique'];
     }
 
     /**
@@ -246,7 +254,6 @@ class Forge extends BaseForge
                 $attributes['TYPE']       = 'NUMBER';
                 $attributes['CONSTRAINT'] = 1;
                 $attributes['UNSIGNED']   = true;
-                $attributes['NULL']       = false;
 
                 return;
 
diff --git a/system/Database/Postgre/Builder.php b/system/Database/Postgre/Builder.php
index e9763089..3749d838 100644
--- a/system/Database/Postgre/Builder.php
+++ b/system/Database/Postgre/Builder.php
@@ -146,7 +146,7 @@ class Builder extends BaseBuilder
             $this->set($set);
         }
 
-        if (! $this->QBSet) {
+        if ($this->QBSet === []) {
             if ($this->db->DBDebug) {
                 throw new DatabaseException('You must use the "set" method to update an entry.');
             }
@@ -229,7 +229,7 @@ class Builder extends BaseBuilder
      */
     public function delete($where = '', ?int $limit = null, bool $resetData = true)
     {
-        if (! empty($limit) || ! empty($this->QBLimit)) {
+        if ($limit !== null && $limit !== 0 || ! empty($this->QBLimit)) {
             throw new DatabaseException('PostgreSQL does not allow LIMITs on DELETE queries.');
         }
 
@@ -312,6 +312,132 @@ class Builder extends BaseBuilder
         return parent::join($table, $cond, $type, $escape);
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Generates a platform-specific batch update string from the supplied data
+     *
+     * @used-by batchExecute
+     *
+     * @param string                 $table  Protected table name
+     * @param list<string>           $keys   QBKeys
+     * @param list<list<int|string>> $values QBSet
+     */
+    protected function _updateBatch(string $table, array $keys, array $values): string
+    {
+        $sql = $this->QBOptions['sql'] ?? '';
+
+        // if this is the first iteration of batch then we need to build skeleton sql
+        if ($sql === '') {
+            $constraints = $this->QBOptions['constraints'] ?? [];
+
+            if ($constraints === []) {
+                if ($this->db->DBDebug) {
+                    throw new DatabaseException('You must specify a constraint to match on for batch updates.'); // @codeCoverageIgnore
+                }
+
+                return ''; // @codeCoverageIgnore
+            }
+
+            $updateFields = $this->QBOptions['updateFields'] ??
+                $this->updateFields($keys, false, $constraints)->QBOptions['updateFields'] ??
+                [];
+
+            $alias = $this->QBOptions['alias'] ?? '_u';
+
+            $sql = 'UPDATE ' . $this->compileIgnore('update') . $table . "\n";
+
+            $sql .= "SET\n";
+
+            $that = $this;
+            $sql .= implode(
+                ",\n",
+                array_map(
+                    static fn ($key, $value) => $key . ($value instanceof RawSql ?
+                            ' = ' . $value :
+                            ' = ' . $that->cast($alias . '.' . $value, $that->getFieldType($table, $key))),
+                    array_keys($updateFields),
+                    $updateFields
+                )
+            ) . "\n";
+
+            $sql .= "FROM (\n{:_table_:}";
+
+            $sql .= ') ' . $alias . "\n";
+
+            $sql .= 'WHERE ' . implode(
+                ' AND ',
+                array_map(
+                    static function ($key, $value) use ($table, $alias, $that) {
+                        if ($value instanceof RawSql && is_string($key)) {
+                            return $table . '.' . $key . ' = ' . $value;
+                        }
+
+                        if ($value instanceof RawSql) {
+                            return $value;
+                        }
+
+                        return $table . '.' . $value . ' = '
+                            . $that->cast($alias . '.' . $value, $that->getFieldType($table, $value));
+                    },
+                    array_keys($constraints),
+                    $constraints
+                )
+            );
+
+            $this->QBOptions['sql'] = $sql;
+        }
+
+        if (isset($this->QBOptions['setQueryAsData'])) {
+            $data = $this->QBOptions['setQueryAsData'];
+        } else {
+            $data = implode(
+                " UNION ALL\n",
+                array_map(
+                    static fn ($value) => 'SELECT ' . implode(', ', array_map(
+                        static fn ($key, $index) => $index . ' ' . $key,
+                        $keys,
+                        $value
+                    )),
+                    $values
+                )
+            ) . "\n";
+        }
+
+        return str_replace('{:_table_:}', $data, $sql);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns cast expression.
+     *
+     * @TODO move this to BaseBuilder in 4.5.0
+     *
+     * @param float|int|string $expression
+     */
+    private function cast($expression, ?string $type): string
+    {
+        return ($type === null) ? $expression : 'CAST(' . $expression . ' AS ' . strtoupper($type) . ')';
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the filed type from database meta data.
+     *
+     * @param string $table     Protected table name.
+     * @param string $fieldName Field name. May be protected.
+     */
+    private function getFieldType(string $table, string $fieldName): ?string
+    {
+        $fieldName = trim($fieldName, $this->db->escapeChar);
+
+        if (! isset($this->QBOptions['fieldTypes'][$table])) {
+            $this->QBOptions['fieldTypes'][$table] = [];
+
+            foreach ($this->db->getFieldData($table) as $field) {
+                $this->QBOptions['fieldTypes'][$table][$field->name] = $field->type;
+            }
+        }
+
+        return $this->QBOptions['fieldTypes'][$table][$fieldName] ?? null;
+    }
+
     /**
      * Generates a platform-specific upsertBatch string from the supplied data
      *
@@ -436,18 +562,25 @@ class Builder extends BaseBuilder
 
             $sql .= ') ' . $alias . "\n";
 
+            $that = $this;
             $sql .= 'WHERE ' . implode(
                 ' AND ',
                 array_map(
-                    static fn ($key, $value) => (
-                        $value instanceof RawSql ?
-                        $value :
-                        (
-                            is_string($key) ?
-                            $table . '.' . $key . ' = ' . $alias . '.' . $value :
-                            $table . '.' . $value . ' = ' . $alias . '.' . $value
-                        )
-                    ),
+                    static function ($key, $value) use ($table, $alias, $that) {
+                        if ($value instanceof RawSql) {
+                            return $value;
+                        }
+
+                        if (is_string($key)) {
+                            return $table . '.' . $key . ' = '
+                                . $that->cast(
+                                    $alias . '.' . $value,
+                                    $that->getFieldType($table, $key)
+                                );
+                        }
+
+                        return $table . '.' . $value . ' = ' . $alias . '.' . $value;
+                    },
                     array_keys($constraints),
                     $constraints
                 )
diff --git a/system/Database/Postgre/Forge.php b/system/Database/Postgre/Forge.php
index 47be1b06..ee758364 100644
--- a/system/Database/Postgre/Forge.php
+++ b/system/Database/Postgre/Forge.php
@@ -81,50 +81,52 @@ class Forge extends BaseForge
     }
 
     /**
-     * @param array|string $field
+     * @param array|string $processedFields Processed column definitions
+     *                                      or column names to DROP
      *
-     * @return array|bool|string
+     * @return false|list<string>|string SQL string or false
+     * @phpstan-return ($alterType is 'DROP' ? string : list<string>|false)
      */
-    protected function _alterTable(string $alterType, string $table, $field)
+    protected function _alterTable(string $alterType, string $table, $processedFields)
     {
         if (in_array($alterType, ['DROP', 'ADD'], true)) {
-            return parent::_alterTable($alterType, $table, $field);
+            return parent::_alterTable($alterType, $table, $processedFields);
         }
 
         $sql  = 'ALTER TABLE ' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($table);
         $sqls = [];
 
-        foreach ($field as $data) {
-            if ($data['_literal'] !== false) {
+        foreach ($processedFields as $field) {
+            if ($field['_literal'] !== false) {
                 return false;
             }
 
-            if (version_compare($this->db->getVersion(), '8', '>=') && isset($data['type'])) {
-                $sqls[] = $sql . ' ALTER COLUMN ' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($data['name'])
-                    . " TYPE {$data['type']}{$data['length']}";
+            if (version_compare($this->db->getVersion(), '8', '>=') && isset($field['type'])) {
+                $sqls[] = $sql . ' ALTER COLUMN ' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($field['name'])
+                    . " TYPE {$field['type']}{$field['length']}";
             }
 
-            if (! empty($data['default'])) {
-                $sqls[] = $sql . ' ALTER COLUMN ' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($data['name'])
-                    . " SET DEFAULT {$data['default']}";
+            if (! empty($field['default'])) {
+                $sqls[] = $sql . ' ALTER COLUMN ' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($field['name'])
+                    . " SET DEFAULT {$field['default']}";
             }
 
             $nullable = true; // Nullable by default.
-            if (isset($data['null']) && ($data['null'] === false || $data['null'] === ' NOT ' . $this->null)) {
+            if (isset($field['null']) && ($field['null'] === false || $field['null'] === ' NOT ' . $this->null)) {
                 $nullable = false;
             }
-            $sqls[] = $sql . ' ALTER COLUMN ' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($data['name'])
+            $sqls[] = $sql . ' ALTER COLUMN ' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($field['name'])
                 . ($nullable === true ? ' DROP' : ' SET') . ' NOT NULL';
 
-            if (! empty($data['new_name'])) {
-                $sqls[] = $sql . ' RENAME COLUMN ' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($data['name'])
-                    . ' TO ' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($data['new_name']);
+            if (! empty($field['new_name'])) {
+                $sqls[] = $sql . ' RENAME COLUMN ' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($field['name'])
+                    . ' TO ' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($field['new_name']);
             }
 
-            if (! empty($data['comment'])) {
+            if (! empty($field['comment'])) {
                 $sqls[] = 'COMMENT ON COLUMN' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($table)
-                    . '.' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($data['name'])
-                    . " IS {$data['comment']}";
+                    . '.' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($field['name'])
+                    . " IS {$field['comment']}";
             }
         }
 
@@ -134,14 +136,14 @@ class Forge extends BaseForge
     /**
      * Process column
      */
-    protected function _processColumn(array $field): string
+    protected function _processColumn(array $processedField): string
     {
-        return $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($field['name'])
-            . ' ' . $field['type'] . ($field['type'] === 'text' ? '' : $field['length'])
-            . $field['default']
-            . $field['null']
-            . $field['auto_increment']
-            . $field['unique'];
+        return $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($processedField['name'])
+            . ' ' . $processedField['type'] . ($processedField['type'] === 'text' ? '' : $processedField['length'])
+            . $processedField['default']
+            . $processedField['null']
+            . $processedField['auto_increment']
+            . $processedField['unique'];
     }
 
     /**
diff --git a/system/Database/ResultInterface.php b/system/Database/ResultInterface.php
index c959a7cb..b06de85a 100644
--- a/system/Database/ResultInterface.php
+++ b/system/Database/ResultInterface.php
@@ -57,8 +57,9 @@ interface ResultInterface
      *
      * If row doesn't exist, returns null.
      *
-     * @param int    $n    The index of the results to return
-     * @param string $type The type of result object. 'array', 'object' or class name.
+     * @param int|string $n    The index of the results to return, or column name.
+     * @param string     $type The type of result object. 'array', 'object' or class name.
+     * @phpstan-param class-string|'array'|'object' $type
      *
      * @return array|object|stdClass|null
      * @phpstan-return ($type is 'object' ? stdClass|null : ($type is 'array' ? array|null : object|null))
diff --git a/system/Database/SQLSRV/Builder.php b/system/Database/SQLSRV/Builder.php
old mode 100644
new mode 100755
index 5e3e4a73..c86e8263
--- a/system/Database/SQLSRV/Builder.php
+++ b/system/Database/SQLSRV/Builder.php
@@ -332,7 +332,7 @@ class Builder extends BaseBuilder
             $this->set($set);
         }
 
-        if (empty($this->QBSet)) {
+        if ($this->QBSet === []) {
             if ($this->db->DBDebug) {
                 throw new DatabaseException('You must use the "set" method to update an entry.');
             }
@@ -514,7 +514,7 @@ class Builder extends BaseBuilder
             $this->where($where);
         }
 
-        if (empty($this->QBWhere)) {
+        if ($this->QBWhere === []) {
             if ($this->db->DBDebug) {
                 throw new DatabaseException('Deletes are not allowed unless they contain a "where" or "like" clause.');
             }
@@ -522,7 +522,7 @@ class Builder extends BaseBuilder
             return false; // @codeCoverageIgnore
         }
 
-        if (! empty($limit)) {
+        if ($limit !== null && $limit !== 0) {
             $this->QBLimit = $limit;
         }
 
@@ -551,7 +551,7 @@ class Builder extends BaseBuilder
             $sql = (! $this->QBDistinct) ? 'SELECT ' : 'SELECT DISTINCT ';
 
             // SQL Server can't work with select * if group by is specified
-            if (empty($this->QBSelect) && ! empty($this->QBGroupBy) && is_array($this->QBGroupBy)) {
+            if (empty($this->QBSelect) && $this->QBGroupBy !== [] && is_array($this->QBGroupBy)) {
                 foreach ($this->QBGroupBy as $field) {
                     $this->QBSelect[] = is_array($field) ? $field['field'] : $field;
                 }
@@ -573,7 +573,7 @@ class Builder extends BaseBuilder
         }
 
         // Write the "FROM" portion of the query
-        if (! empty($this->QBFrom)) {
+        if ($this->QBFrom !== []) {
             $sql .= "\nFROM " . $this->_fromTables();
         }
 
@@ -660,7 +660,7 @@ class Builder extends BaseBuilder
                 });
 
                 // if no primary found then look for unique - since indexes have no order
-                if (empty($uniqueIndexes)) {
+                if ($uniqueIndexes === []) {
                     $uniqueIndexes = array_filter($tableIndexes, static function ($index) use ($fieldNames) {
                         $hasAllFields = count(array_intersect($index->fields, $fieldNames)) === count($index->fields);
 
diff --git a/system/Database/SQLSRV/Connection.php b/system/Database/SQLSRV/Connection.php
old mode 100644
new mode 100755
index f1a9fb0b..bd9a22e9
--- a/system/Database/SQLSRV/Connection.php
+++ b/system/Database/SQLSRV/Connection.php
@@ -444,7 +444,7 @@ class Connection extends BaseConnection
      */
     public function setDatabase(?string $databaseName = null)
     {
-        if (empty($databaseName)) {
+        if ($databaseName === null || $databaseName === '') {
             $databaseName = $this->database;
         }
 
@@ -538,7 +538,7 @@ class Connection extends BaseConnection
             return $this->dataCache['version'];
         }
 
-        if (! $this->connID || empty($info = sqlsrv_server_info($this->connID))) {
+        if (! $this->connID || ($info = sqlsrv_server_info($this->connID)) === []) {
             $this->initialize();
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Database/SQLSRV/Forge.php b/system/Database/SQLSRV/Forge.php
old mode 100644
new mode 100755
index e4462476..522d5fa0
--- a/system/Database/SQLSRV/Forge.php
+++ b/system/Database/SQLSRV/Forge.php
@@ -126,26 +126,30 @@ class Forge extends BaseForge
     }
 
     /**
-     * @param array|string $field
+     * @param array|string $processedFields Processed column definitions
+     *                                      or column names to DROP
      *
-     * @return false|string|string[]
+     * @return false|list<string>|string SQL string or false
+     * @phpstan-return ($alterType is 'DROP' ? string : list<string>|false)
      */
-    protected function _alterTable(string $alterType, string $table, $field)
+    protected function _alterTable(string $alterType, string $table, $processedFields)
     {
         // Handle DROP here
         if ($alterType === 'DROP') {
+            $columnNamesToDrop = $processedFields;
+
             // check if fields are part of any indexes
             $indexData = $this->db->getIndexData($table);
 
             foreach ($indexData as $index) {
-                if (is_string($field)) {
-                    $field = explode(',', $field);
+                if (is_string($columnNamesToDrop)) {
+                    $columnNamesToDrop = explode(',', $columnNamesToDrop);
                 }
 
-                $fld = array_intersect($field, $index->fields);
+                $fld = array_intersect($columnNamesToDrop, $index->fields);
 
                 // Drop index if field is part of an index
-                if (! empty($fld)) {
+                if ($fld !== []) {
                     $this->_dropIndex($table, $index);
                 }
             }
@@ -153,7 +157,7 @@ class Forge extends BaseForge
             $fullTable = $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($this->db->schema) . '.' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($table);
 
             // Drop default constraints
-            $fields = implode(',', $this->db->escape((array) $field));
+            $fields = implode(',', $this->db->escape((array) $columnNamesToDrop));
 
             $sql = <<<SQL
                 SELECT name
@@ -170,7 +174,7 @@ class Forge extends BaseForge
 
             $sql = 'ALTER TABLE ' . $fullTable . ' DROP ';
 
-            $fields = array_map(static fn ($item) => 'COLUMN [' . trim($item) . ']', (array) $field);
+            $fields = array_map(static fn ($item) => 'COLUMN [' . trim($item) . ']', (array) $columnNamesToDrop);
 
             return $sql . implode(',', $fields);
         }
@@ -181,45 +185,45 @@ class Forge extends BaseForge
         $sqls = [];
 
         if ($alterType === 'ADD') {
-            foreach ($field as $data) {
-                $sqls[] = $sql . ($data['_literal'] !== false ? $data['_literal'] : $this->_processColumn($data));
+            foreach ($processedFields as $field) {
+                $sqls[] = $sql . ($field['_literal'] !== false ? $field['_literal'] : $this->_processColumn($field));
             }
 
             return $sqls;
         }
 
-        foreach ($field as $data) {
-            if ($data['_literal'] !== false) {
+        foreach ($processedFields as $field) {
+            if ($field['_literal'] !== false) {
                 return false;
             }
 
-            if (isset($data['type'])) {
-                $sqls[] = $sql . ' ALTER COLUMN ' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($data['name'])
-                    . " {$data['type']}{$data['length']}";
+            if (isset($field['type'])) {
+                $sqls[] = $sql . ' ALTER COLUMN ' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($field['name'])
+                    . " {$field['type']}{$field['length']}";
             }
 
-            if (! empty($data['default'])) {
-                $sqls[] = $sql . ' ALTER COLUMN ADD CONSTRAINT ' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($data['name']) . '_def'
-                    . " DEFAULT {$data['default']} FOR " . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($data['name']);
+            if (! empty($field['default'])) {
+                $sqls[] = $sql . ' ALTER COLUMN ADD CONSTRAINT ' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($field['name']) . '_def'
+                    . " DEFAULT {$field['default']} FOR " . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($field['name']);
             }
 
             $nullable = true; // Nullable by default.
-            if (isset($data['null']) && ($data['null'] === false || $data['null'] === ' NOT ' . $this->null)) {
+            if (isset($field['null']) && ($field['null'] === false || $field['null'] === ' NOT ' . $this->null)) {
                 $nullable = false;
             }
-            $sqls[] = $sql . ' ALTER COLUMN ' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($data['name'])
-                . " {$data['type']}{$data['length']} " . ($nullable === true ? '' : 'NOT') . ' NULL';
+            $sqls[] = $sql . ' ALTER COLUMN ' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($field['name'])
+                . " {$field['type']}{$field['length']} " . ($nullable === true ? '' : 'NOT') . ' NULL';
 
-            if (! empty($data['comment'])) {
+            if (! empty($field['comment'])) {
                 $sqls[] = 'EXEC sys.sp_addextendedproperty '
-                    . "@name=N'Caption', @value=N'" . $data['comment'] . "' , "
+                    . "@name=N'Caption', @value=N'" . $field['comment'] . "' , "
                     . "@level0type=N'SCHEMA',@level0name=N'" . $this->db->schema . "', "
                     . "@level1type=N'TABLE',@level1name=N'" . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($table) . "', "
-                    . "@level2type=N'COLUMN',@level2name=N'" . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($data['name']) . "'";
+                    . "@level2type=N'COLUMN',@level2name=N'" . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($field['name']) . "'";
             }
 
-            if (! empty($data['new_name'])) {
-                $sqls[] = "EXEC sp_rename  '[" . $this->db->schema . '].[' . $table . '].[' . $data['name'] . "]' , '" . $data['new_name'] . "', 'COLUMN';";
+            if (! empty($field['new_name'])) {
+                $sqls[] = "EXEC sp_rename  '[" . $this->db->schema . '].[' . $table . '].[' . $field['name'] . "]' , '" . $field['new_name'] . "', 'COLUMN';";
             }
         }
 
@@ -287,16 +291,16 @@ class Forge extends BaseForge
     /**
      * Process column
      */
-    protected function _processColumn(array $field): string
+    protected function _processColumn(array $processedField): string
     {
-        return $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($field['name'])
-            . (empty($field['new_name']) ? '' : ' ' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($field['new_name']))
-            . ' ' . $field['type'] . ($field['type'] === 'text' ? '' : $field['length'])
-            . $field['default']
-            . $field['null']
-            . $field['auto_increment']
+        return $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($processedField['name'])
+            . (empty($processedField['new_name']) ? '' : ' ' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($processedField['new_name']))
+            . ' ' . $processedField['type'] . ($processedField['type'] === 'text' ? '' : $processedField['length'])
+            . $processedField['default']
+            . $processedField['null']
+            . $processedField['auto_increment']
             . ''
-            . $field['unique'];
+            . $processedField['unique'];
     }
 
     /**
diff --git a/system/Database/SQLSRV/PreparedQuery.php b/system/Database/SQLSRV/PreparedQuery.php
old mode 100644
new mode 100755
diff --git a/system/Database/SQLSRV/Result.php b/system/Database/SQLSRV/Result.php
old mode 100644
new mode 100755
diff --git a/system/Database/SQLSRV/Utils.php b/system/Database/SQLSRV/Utils.php
old mode 100644
new mode 100755
diff --git a/system/Database/SQLite3/Forge.php b/system/Database/SQLite3/Forge.php
index b1dcb1dd..d7112c61 100644
--- a/system/Database/SQLite3/Forge.php
+++ b/system/Database/SQLite3/Forge.php
@@ -109,51 +109,56 @@ class Forge extends BaseForge
     }
 
     /**
-     * @param array|string $field
+     * @param array|string $processedFields Processed column definitions
+     *                                      or column names to DROP
      *
      * @return array|string|null
+     * @return list<string>|string|null SQL string or null
+     * @phpstan-return ($alterType is 'DROP' ? string : list<string>|null)
      */
-    protected function _alterTable(string $alterType, string $table, $field)
+    protected function _alterTable(string $alterType, string $table, $processedFields)
     {
         switch ($alterType) {
             case 'DROP':
+                $columnNamesToDrop = $processedFields;
+
                 $sqlTable = new Table($this->db, $this);
 
                 $sqlTable->fromTable($table)
-                    ->dropColumn($field)
+                    ->dropColumn($columnNamesToDrop)
                     ->run();
 
-                return '';
+                return ''; // Why empty string?
 
             case 'CHANGE':
                 (new Table($this->db, $this))
                     ->fromTable($table)
-                    ->modifyColumn($field)
+                    ->modifyColumn($processedFields) // @TODO Bug: should be NOT processed fields
                     ->run();
 
-                return null;
+                return null; // Why null?
 
             default:
-                return parent::_alterTable($alterType, $table, $field);
+                return parent::_alterTable($alterType, $table, $processedFields);
         }
     }
 
     /**
      * Process column
      */
-    protected function _processColumn(array $field): string
+    protected function _processColumn(array $processedField): string
     {
-        if ($field['type'] === 'TEXT' && strpos($field['length'], "('") === 0) {
-            $field['type'] .= ' CHECK(' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($field['name'])
-                . ' IN ' . $field['length'] . ')';
+        if ($processedField['type'] === 'TEXT' && strpos($processedField['length'], "('") === 0) {
+            $processedField['type'] .= ' CHECK(' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($processedField['name'])
+                . ' IN ' . $processedField['length'] . ')';
         }
 
-        return $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($field['name'])
-            . ' ' . $field['type']
-            . $field['auto_increment']
-            . $field['null']
-            . $field['unique']
-            . $field['default'];
+        return $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($processedField['name'])
+            . ' ' . $processedField['type']
+            . $processedField['auto_increment']
+            . $processedField['null']
+            . $processedField['unique']
+            . $processedField['default'];
     }
 
     /**
@@ -183,8 +188,11 @@ class Forge extends BaseForge
      */
     protected function _attributeAutoIncrement(array &$attributes, array &$field)
     {
-        if (! empty($attributes['AUTO_INCREMENT']) && $attributes['AUTO_INCREMENT'] === true
-            && stripos($field['type'], 'int') !== false) {
+        if (
+            ! empty($attributes['AUTO_INCREMENT'])
+            && $attributes['AUTO_INCREMENT'] === true
+            && stripos($field['type'], 'int') !== false
+        ) {
             $field['type']           = 'INTEGER PRIMARY KEY';
             $field['default']        = '';
             $field['null']           = '';
diff --git a/system/Database/SQLite3/Table.php b/system/Database/SQLite3/Table.php
index 4ed9b515..620d2846 100644
--- a/system/Database/SQLite3/Table.php
+++ b/system/Database/SQLite3/Table.php
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@
 namespace CodeIgniter\Database\SQLite3;
 
 use CodeIgniter\Database\Exceptions\DataException;
-use stdclass;
+use stdClass;
 
 /**
  * Class Table
@@ -28,8 +28,7 @@ class Table
     /**
      * All of the fields this table represents.
      *
-     * @var array
-     * @phpstan-var array<string, array<string, bool|int|string|null>>
+     * @var array<string, array<string, bool|int|string|null>> [name => attributes]
      */
     protected $fields = [];
 
@@ -114,7 +113,7 @@ class Table
         // if primary key index exists twice then remove psuedo index name 'primary'.
         $primaryIndexes = array_filter($this->keys, static fn ($index) => $index['type'] === 'primary');
 
-        if (! empty($primaryIndexes) && count($primaryIndexes) > 1 && array_key_exists('primary', $this->keys)) {
+        if ($primaryIndexes !== [] && count($primaryIndexes) > 1 && array_key_exists('primary', $this->keys)) {
             unset($this->keys['primary']);
         }
 
@@ -157,7 +156,7 @@ class Table
     /**
      * Drops columns from the table.
      *
-     * @param array|string $columns
+     * @param list<string>|string $columns Column names to drop.
      *
      * @return Table
      */
@@ -178,14 +177,15 @@ class Table
     }
 
     /**
-     * Modifies a field, including changing data type,
-     * renaming, etc.
+     * Modifies a field, including changing data type, renaming, etc.
+     *
+     * @param list<array<string, bool|int|string|null>> $fieldsToModify
      *
      * @return Table
      */
-    public function modifyColumn(array $fields)
+    public function modifyColumn(array $fieldsToModify)
     {
-        foreach ($fields as $field) {
+        foreach ($fieldsToModify as $field) {
             $oldName = $field['name'];
             unset($field['name']);
 
diff --git a/system/Database/Seeder.php b/system/Database/Seeder.php
index f51fa417..c0f267d2 100644
--- a/system/Database/Seeder.php
+++ b/system/Database/Seeder.php
@@ -25,8 +25,7 @@ class Seeder
     /**
      * The name of the database group to use.
      *
-     * @var string
-     * @phpstan-var non-empty-string
+     * @var non-empty-string
      */
     protected $DBGroup;
 
@@ -79,7 +78,7 @@ class Seeder
     {
         $this->seedPath = $config->filesPath ?? APPPATH . 'Database/';
 
-        if (empty($this->seedPath)) {
+        if ($this->seedPath === '') {
             throw new InvalidArgumentException('Invalid filesPath set in the Config\Database.');
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Debug/BaseExceptionHandler.php b/system/Debug/BaseExceptionHandler.php
index 0330c53c..6a5b5e47 100644
--- a/system/Debug/BaseExceptionHandler.php
+++ b/system/Debug/BaseExceptionHandler.php
@@ -67,7 +67,14 @@ abstract class BaseExceptionHandler
      */
     protected function collectVars(Throwable $exception, int $statusCode): array
     {
-        $trace = $exception->getTrace();
+        // Get the first exception.
+        $firstException = $exception;
+
+        while ($prevException = $firstException->getPrevious()) {
+            $firstException = $prevException;
+        }
+
+        $trace = $firstException->getTrace();
 
         if ($this->config->sensitiveDataInTrace !== []) {
             $trace = $this->maskSensitiveData($trace, $this->config->sensitiveDataInTrace);
@@ -154,7 +161,7 @@ abstract class BaseExceptionHandler
      */
     protected static function highlightFile(string $file, int $lineNumber, int $lines = 15)
     {
-        if (empty($file) || ! is_readable($file)) {
+        if ($file === '' || ! is_readable($file)) {
             return false;
         }
 
@@ -175,8 +182,15 @@ abstract class BaseExceptionHandler
 
         $source = str_replace(["\r\n", "\r"], "\n", $source);
         $source = explode("\n", highlight_string($source, true));
-        $source = str_replace('<br />', "\n", $source[1]);
-        $source = explode("\n", str_replace("\r\n", "\n", $source));
+
+        if (PHP_VERSION_ID < 80300) {
+            $source = str_replace('<br />', "\n", $source[1]);
+            $source = explode("\n", str_replace("\r\n", "\n", $source));
+        } else {
+            // We have to remove these tags since we're preparing the result
+            // ourselves and these tags are added manually at the end.
+            $source = str_replace(['<pre><code>', '</code></pre>'], '', $source);
+        }
 
         // Get just the part to show
         $start = max($lineNumber - (int) round($lines / 2), 0);
@@ -192,7 +206,7 @@ abstract class BaseExceptionHandler
         // of open and close span tags on one line, we need
         // to ensure we can close them all to get the lines
         // showing correctly.
-        $spans = 1;
+        $spans = 0;
 
         foreach ($source as $n => $row) {
             $spans += substr_count($row, '<span') - substr_count($row, '</span');
@@ -209,6 +223,9 @@ abstract class BaseExceptionHandler
                 );
             } else {
                 $out .= sprintf('<span class="line"><span class="number">' . $format . '</span> %s', $n + $start + 1, $row) . "\n";
+                // We're closing only one span tag we added manually line before,
+                // so we have to increment $spans count to close this tag later.
+                $spans++;
             }
         }
 
@@ -232,7 +249,7 @@ abstract class BaseExceptionHandler
             exit(1);
         }
 
-        echo(function () use ($exception, $statusCode, $viewFile): string {
+        echo (function () use ($exception, $statusCode, $viewFile): string {
             $vars = $this->collectVars($exception, $statusCode);
             extract($vars, EXTR_SKIP);
 
diff --git a/system/Debug/Exceptions.php b/system/Debug/Exceptions.php
index bbcfcc8e..1f5a5b52 100644
--- a/system/Debug/Exceptions.php
+++ b/system/Debug/Exceptions.php
@@ -117,7 +117,6 @@ class Exceptions
      * and fire an event that allows custom actions to be taken at this point.
      *
      * @return void
-     * @phpstan-return never|void
      */
     public function exceptionHandler(Throwable $exception)
     {
@@ -126,22 +125,31 @@ class Exceptions
         [$statusCode, $exitCode] = $this->determineCodes($exception);
 
         if ($this->config->log === true && ! in_array($statusCode, $this->config->ignoreCodes, true)) {
-            log_message('critical', "{message}\nin {exFile} on line {exLine}.\n{trace}", [
+            log_message('critical', get_class($exception) . ": {message}\nin {exFile} on line {exLine}.\n{trace}", [
                 'message' => $exception->getMessage(),
                 'exFile'  => clean_path($exception->getFile()), // {file} refers to THIS file
                 'exLine'  => $exception->getLine(), // {line} refers to THIS line
                 'trace'   => self::renderBacktrace($exception->getTrace()),
             ]);
+
+            // Get the first exception.
+            $last = $exception;
+
+            while ($prevException = $last->getPrevious()) {
+                $last = $prevException;
+
+                log_message('critical', '[Caused by] ' . get_class($prevException) . ": {message}\nin {exFile} on line {exLine}.\n{trace}", [
+                    'message' => $prevException->getMessage(),
+                    'exFile'  => clean_path($prevException->getFile()), // {file} refers to THIS file
+                    'exLine'  => $prevException->getLine(), // {line} refers to THIS line
+                    'trace'   => self::renderBacktrace($prevException->getTrace()),
+                ]);
+            }
         }
 
         $this->request  = Services::request();
         $this->response = Services::response();
 
-        // Get the first exception.
-        while ($prevException = $exception->getPrevious()) {
-            $exception = $prevException;
-        }
-
         if (method_exists($this->config, 'handler')) {
             // Use new ExceptionHandler
             $handler = $this->config->handler($statusCode, $exception);
@@ -215,7 +223,6 @@ class Exceptions
      * @codeCoverageIgnore
      *
      * @return void
-     * @phpstan-return never|void
      */
     public function shutdownHandler()
     {
@@ -280,7 +287,6 @@ class Exceptions
      * Given an exception and status code will display the error to the client.
      *
      * @return void
-     * @phpstan-return never|void
      *
      * @deprecated 4.4.0 No longer used. Moved to BaseExceptionHandler.
      */
@@ -310,7 +316,7 @@ class Exceptions
             exit(1);
         }
 
-        echo(function () use ($exception, $statusCode, $viewFile): string {
+        echo (function () use ($exception, $statusCode, $viewFile): string {
             $vars = $this->collectVars($exception, $statusCode);
             extract($vars, EXTR_SKIP);
 
@@ -328,7 +334,14 @@ class Exceptions
      */
     protected function collectVars(Throwable $exception, int $statusCode): array
     {
-        $trace = $exception->getTrace();
+        // Get the first exception.
+        $firstException = $exception;
+
+        while ($prevException = $firstException->getPrevious()) {
+            $firstException = $prevException;
+        }
+
+        $trace = $firstException->getTrace();
 
         if ($this->config->sensitiveDataInTrace !== []) {
             $trace = $this->maskSensitiveData($trace, $this->config->sensitiveDataInTrace);
@@ -509,7 +522,7 @@ class Exceptions
      */
     public static function highlightFile(string $file, int $lineNumber, int $lines = 15)
     {
-        if (empty($file) || ! is_readable($file)) {
+        if ($file === '' || ! is_readable($file)) {
             return false;
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Debug/Iterator.php b/system/Debug/Iterator.php
index f54335b6..4bfb3a5b 100644
--- a/system/Debug/Iterator.php
+++ b/system/Debug/Iterator.php
@@ -38,7 +38,7 @@ class Iterator
      * Tests are simply closures that the user can define any sequence of
      * things to happen during the test.
      *
-     * @phpstan-param Closure(): mixed $closure
+     * @param Closure(): mixed $closure
      *
      * @return $this
      */
@@ -93,7 +93,7 @@ class Iterator
      */
     public function getReport(): string
     {
-        if (empty($this->results)) {
+        if ($this->results === []) {
             return 'No results to display.';
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Debug/Timer.php b/system/Debug/Timer.php
index d43bf1c5..45c0bf86 100644
--- a/system/Debug/Timer.php
+++ b/system/Debug/Timer.php
@@ -133,10 +133,10 @@ class Timer
      * Executes callable and measures its time.
      * Returns its return value if any.
      *
-     * @param string $name The name of the timer
-     * @phpstan-param callable(): mixed $callable callable to be executed
+     * @param string            $name     The name of the timer
+     * @param callable(): mixed $callable callable to be executed
      *
-     * @return array|bool|float|int|object|resource|string|null
+     * @return mixed
      */
     public function record(string $name, callable $callable)
     {
diff --git a/system/Debug/Toolbar.php b/system/Debug/Toolbar.php
index 73c777ba..b99d8392 100644
--- a/system/Debug/Toolbar.php
+++ b/system/Debug/Toolbar.php
@@ -121,7 +121,7 @@ class Toolbar
             $data['vars']['varData'][esc($heading)] = $varData;
         }
 
-        if (! empty($_SESSION)) {
+        if (isset($_SESSION)) {
             foreach ($_SESSION as $key => $value) {
                 // Replace the binary data with string to avoid json_encode failure.
                 if (is_string($value) && preg_match('~[^\x20-\x7E\t\r\n]~', $value)) {
@@ -292,7 +292,7 @@ class Toolbar
         $element = array_shift($elements);
 
         // If we have children behind us, collect and attach them to us
-        while (! empty($elements) && $elements[array_key_first($elements)]['end'] <= $element['end']) {
+        while ($elements !== [] && $elements[array_key_first($elements)]['end'] <= $element['end']) {
             $element['children'][] = array_shift($elements);
         }
 
@@ -302,7 +302,7 @@ class Toolbar
         }
 
         // If we have no younger siblings, we can return
-        if (empty($elements)) {
+        if ($elements === []) {
             return [$element];
         }
 
@@ -435,7 +435,6 @@ class Toolbar
      * @codeCoverageIgnore
      *
      * @return void
-     * @phpstan-return never|void
      */
     public function respond()
     {
diff --git a/system/Debug/Toolbar/Collectors/Database.php b/system/Debug/Toolbar/Collectors/Database.php
index 4b2ff96f..5b5614ad 100644
--- a/system/Debug/Toolbar/Collectors/Database.php
+++ b/system/Debug/Toolbar/Collectors/Database.php
@@ -80,7 +80,6 @@ class Database extends BaseCollector
      * @internal
      *
      * @return void
-     * @phpstan-return never|void
      */
     public static function collect(Query $query)
     {
@@ -236,7 +235,7 @@ class Database extends BaseCollector
      */
     public function isEmpty(): bool
     {
-        return empty(static::$queries);
+        return static::$queries === [];
     }
 
     /**
diff --git a/system/Debug/Toolbar/Collectors/History.php b/system/Debug/Toolbar/Collectors/History.php
index a639e35a..fcf06e16 100644
--- a/system/Debug/Toolbar/Collectors/History.php
+++ b/system/Debug/Toolbar/Collectors/History.php
@@ -128,7 +128,7 @@ class History extends BaseCollector
      */
     public function isEmpty(): bool
     {
-        return empty($this->files);
+        return $this->files === [];
     }
 
     /**
diff --git a/system/Debug/Toolbar/Views/toolbar.css b/system/Debug/Toolbar/Views/toolbar.css
index 89555b4f..8a302b40 100644
--- a/system/Debug/Toolbar/Views/toolbar.css
+++ b/system/Debug/Toolbar/Views/toolbar.css
@@ -532,9 +532,6 @@
   #debug-bar .timeline .timer {
     background-color: #DD8615;
   }
-  #debug-bar .timeline .timeline-parent-open td {
-    color: #252525;
-  }
   .debug-view.show-view {
     border-color: #DD8615;
   }
@@ -647,9 +644,6 @@
 #toolbarContainer.dark #debug-bar .timeline .timer {
   background-color: #DD8615;
 }
-#toolbarContainer.dark #debug-bar .timeline .timeline-parent-open td {
-  color: #252525;
-}
 #toolbarContainer.dark .debug-view.show-view {
   border-color: #DD8615;
 }
diff --git a/system/Debug/Toolbar/Views/toolbar.tpl.php b/system/Debug/Toolbar/Views/toolbar.tpl.php
index 6e62340c..3652a536 100644
--- a/system/Debug/Toolbar/Views/toolbar.tpl.php
+++ b/system/Debug/Toolbar/Views/toolbar.tpl.php
@@ -1,21 +1,21 @@
 <?php
 /**
- * @var \CodeIgniter\Debug\Toolbar $this
- * @var int                        $totalTime
- * @var int                        $totalMemory
- * @var string                     $url
- * @var string                     $method
- * @var bool                       $isAJAX
- * @var int                        $startTime
- * @var int                        $totalTime
- * @var int                        $totalMemory
- * @var float                      $segmentDuration
- * @var int                        $segmentCount
- * @var string                     $CI_VERSION
- * @var array                      $collectors
- * @var array                      $vars
- * @var array                      $styles
- * @var \CodeIgniter\View\Parser   $parser
+ * @var CodeIgniter\Debug\Toolbar $this
+ * @var int                       $totalTime
+ * @var int                       $totalMemory
+ * @var string                    $url
+ * @var string                    $method
+ * @var bool                      $isAJAX
+ * @var int                       $startTime
+ * @var int                       $totalTime
+ * @var int                       $totalMemory
+ * @var float                     $segmentDuration
+ * @var int                       $segmentCount
+ * @var string                    $CI_VERSION
+ * @var array                     $collectors
+ * @var array                     $vars
+ * @var array                     $styles
+ * @var CodeIgniter\View\Parser   $parser
  */
 ?>
 <style>
@@ -23,7 +23,7 @@
 </style>
 
 <script id="toolbar_js">
-    var ciSiteURL = "<?= site_url() ?>"
+    var ciSiteURL = "<?= rtrim(site_url(), '/') ?>"
     <?= file_get_contents(__DIR__ . '/toolbar.js') ?>
 </script>
 <div id="debug-icon" class="debug-bar-ndisplay">
diff --git a/system/Email/Email.php b/system/Email/Email.php
index a6ad2d99..42835c3d 100644
--- a/system/Email/Email.php
+++ b/system/Email/Email.php
@@ -71,7 +71,7 @@ class Email
     public $protocol = 'mail';
 
     /**
-     * STMP Server host
+     * STMP Server Hostname
      *
      * @var string
      */
@@ -352,8 +352,7 @@ class Email
      * Character sets valid for 7-bit encoding,
      * excluding language suffix.
      *
-     * @var array<int, string>
-     * @phpstan-var list<string>
+     * @var list<string>
      */
     protected $baseCharsets = [
         'us-ascii',
@@ -706,6 +705,7 @@ class Email
     public function setAttachmentCID($filename)
     {
         foreach ($this->attachments as $i => $attachment) {
+            // For file path.
             if ($attachment['name'][0] === $filename) {
                 $this->attachments[$i]['multipart'] = 'related';
 
@@ -713,6 +713,15 @@ class Email
 
                 return $this->attachments[$i]['cid'];
             }
+
+            // For buffer string.
+            if ($attachment['name'][1] === $filename) {
+                $this->attachments[$i]['multipart'] = 'related';
+
+                $this->attachments[$i]['cid'] = uniqid(basename($attachment['name'][1]) . '@', true);
+
+                return $this->attachments[$i]['cid'];
+            }
         }
 
         return false;
@@ -732,7 +741,7 @@ class Email
     }
 
     /**
-     * @param string $email
+     * @param array|string $email
      *
      * @return array
      */
@@ -1237,13 +1246,13 @@ class Email
                     . $this->prepQuotedPrintable($this->body) . $this->newline . $this->newline
                     . '--' . $altBoundary . '--' . $this->newline . $this->newline;
 
-                if (! empty($relBoundary)) {
+                if (isset($relBoundary)) {
                     $body .= $this->newline . $this->newline;
                     $this->appendAttachments($body, $relBoundary, 'related');
                 }
 
                 // multipart/mixed attachments
-                if (! empty($atcBoundary)) {
+                if (isset($atcBoundary)) {
                     $body .= $this->newline . $this->newline;
                     $this->appendAttachments($body, $atcBoundary, 'mixed');
                 }
diff --git a/system/Entity/Entity.php b/system/Entity/Entity.php
index 65898c01..0e751b68 100644
--- a/system/Entity/Entity.php
+++ b/system/Entity/Entity.php
@@ -55,8 +55,7 @@ class Entity implements JsonSerializable
     /**
      * The date fields.
      *
-     * @var array<int, string>
-     * @phpstan-var list<string>
+     * @var list<string>
      */
     protected $dates = [
         'created_at',
@@ -320,7 +319,7 @@ class Entity implements JsonSerializable
      */
     protected function mapProperty(string $key)
     {
-        if (empty($this->datamap)) {
+        if ($this->datamap === []) {
             return $key;
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Files/File.php b/system/Files/File.php
index 4e4ee388..01131129 100644
--- a/system/Files/File.php
+++ b/system/Files/File.php
@@ -140,7 +140,7 @@ class File extends SplFileInfo
     public function move(string $targetPath, ?string $name = null, bool $overwrite = false)
     {
         $targetPath = rtrim($targetPath, '/') . '/';
-        $name ??= $this->getBaseName();
+        $name ??= $this->getBasename();
         $destination = $overwrite ? $targetPath . $name : $this->getDestination($targetPath . $name);
 
         $oldName = $this->getRealPath() ?: $this->__toString();
diff --git a/system/Filters/Filters.php b/system/Filters/Filters.php
index df27e3f6..18001b10 100644
--- a/system/Filters/Filters.php
+++ b/system/Filters/Filters.php
@@ -87,16 +87,14 @@ class Filters
     /**
      * Any arguments to be passed to filters.
      *
-     * @var array<string, array<int, string>|null> [name => params]
-     * @phpstan-var array<string, list<string>|null>
+     * @var array<string, list<string>|null> [name => params]
      */
     protected $arguments = [];
 
     /**
      * Any arguments to be passed to filtersClass.
      *
-     * @var array<string, array|null> [classname => arguments]
-     * @phpstan-var array<class-string, array<string, list<string>>|null>
+     * @var array<class-string, array<string, list<string>>|null> [classname => arguments]
      */
     protected $argumentsClass = [];
 
@@ -373,8 +371,7 @@ class Filters
      *
      * @param string $name filter_name or filter_name:arguments like 'role:admin,manager'
      *
-     * @return array [name, arguments]
-     * @phpstan-return array{0: string, 1: list<string>}
+     * @return array{0: string, 1: list<string>} [name, arguments]
      */
     private function getCleanName(string $name): array
     {
diff --git a/system/HTTP/CLIRequest.php b/system/HTTP/CLIRequest.php
index 878e8a1d..01823dbf 100644
--- a/system/HTTP/CLIRequest.php
+++ b/system/HTTP/CLIRequest.php
@@ -95,7 +95,7 @@ class CLIRequest extends Request
     {
         $path = implode('/', $this->segments);
 
-        return empty($path) ? '' : $path;
+        return ($path === '') ? '' : $path;
     }
 
     /**
@@ -147,7 +147,7 @@ class CLIRequest extends Request
      */
     public function getOptionString(bool $useLongOpts = false): string
     {
-        if (empty($this->options)) {
+        if ($this->options === []) {
             return '';
         }
 
diff --git a/system/HTTP/CURLRequest.php b/system/HTTP/CURLRequest.php
index c8b3b9fe..500b425d 100644
--- a/system/HTTP/CURLRequest.php
+++ b/system/HTTP/CURLRequest.php
@@ -549,16 +549,18 @@ class CURLRequest extends OutgoingRequest
         // SSL Verification
         if (isset($config['verify'])) {
             if (is_string($config['verify'])) {
-                $file = realpath($config['ssl_key']) ?: $config['ssl_key'];
+                $file = realpath($config['verify']) ?: $config['verify'];
 
                 if (! is_file($file)) {
-                    throw HTTPException::forInvalidSSLKey($config['ssl_key']);
+                    throw HTTPException::forInvalidSSLKey($config['verify']);
                 }
 
                 $curlOptions[CURLOPT_CAINFO]         = $file;
-                $curlOptions[CURLOPT_SSL_VERIFYPEER] = 1;
+                $curlOptions[CURLOPT_SSL_VERIFYPEER] = true;
+                $curlOptions[CURLOPT_SSL_VERIFYHOST] = 2;
             } elseif (is_bool($config['verify'])) {
                 $curlOptions[CURLOPT_SSL_VERIFYPEER] = $config['verify'];
+                $curlOptions[CURLOPT_SSL_VERIFYHOST] = $config['verify'] ? 2 : 0;
             }
         }
 
diff --git a/system/HTTP/ContentSecurityPolicy.php b/system/HTTP/ContentSecurityPolicy.php
index 37b0ce65..f4970bf7 100644
--- a/system/HTTP/ContentSecurityPolicy.php
+++ b/system/HTTP/ContentSecurityPolicy.php
@@ -790,7 +790,7 @@ class ContentSecurityPolicy
         $reportSources = [];
 
         foreach ($values as $value => $reportOnly) {
-            if (is_numeric($value) && is_string($reportOnly) && ! empty($reportOnly)) {
+            if (is_numeric($value) && is_string($reportOnly) && ($reportOnly !== '')) {
                 $value      = $reportOnly;
                 $reportOnly = $this->reportOnly;
             }
@@ -806,11 +806,11 @@ class ContentSecurityPolicy
             }
         }
 
-        if (! empty($sources)) {
+        if ($sources !== []) {
             $this->tempHeaders[$name] = implode(' ', $sources);
         }
 
-        if (! empty($reportSources)) {
+        if ($reportSources !== []) {
             $this->reportOnlyHeaders[$name] = implode(' ', $reportSources);
         }
     }
diff --git a/system/HTTP/Exceptions/HTTPException.php b/system/HTTP/Exceptions/HTTPException.php
index d22c48bc..3fcfe73f 100644
--- a/system/HTTP/Exceptions/HTTPException.php
+++ b/system/HTTP/Exceptions/HTTPException.php
@@ -72,6 +72,19 @@ class HTTPException extends FrameworkException
         return new static(lang('HTTP.invalidNegotiationType', [$type]));
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Thrown in IncomingRequest when the json_decode() produces
+     *  an error code other than JSON_ERROR_NONE.
+     *
+     * @param string $error The error message
+     *
+     * @return static
+     */
+    public static function forInvalidJSON(?string $error = null)
+    {
+        return new static(lang('HTTP.invalidJSON', [$error]));
+    }
+
     /**
      * For Message
      *
@@ -215,4 +228,15 @@ class HTTPException extends FrameworkException
     {
         return new static(lang('Security.invalidSameSiteSetting', [$samesite]));
     }
+
+    /**
+     * Thrown when the JSON format is not supported.
+     * This is specifically for cases where data validation is expected to work with key-value structures.
+     *
+     * @return HTTPException
+     */
+    public static function forUnsupportedJSONFormat()
+    {
+        return new static(lang('HTTP.unsupportedJSONFormat'));
+    }
 }
diff --git a/system/HTTP/Files/FileCollection.php b/system/HTTP/Files/FileCollection.php
index f01cc69f..124381ec 100644
--- a/system/HTTP/Files/FileCollection.php
+++ b/system/HTTP/Files/FileCollection.php
@@ -77,7 +77,7 @@ class FileCollection
     /**
      * Verify if a file exist in the collection of uploaded files and is have been uploaded with multiple option.
      *
-     * @return array|null
+     * @return list<UploadedFile>|null
      */
     public function getFileMultiple(string $name)
     {
@@ -148,7 +148,7 @@ class FileCollection
 
         $this->files = [];
 
-        if (empty($_FILES)) {
+        if ($_FILES === []) {
             return;
         }
 
@@ -245,7 +245,7 @@ class FileCollection
      * @param array $index The index sequence we are navigating down
      * @param array $value The portion of the array to process
      *
-     * @return UploadedFile|null
+     * @return list<UploadedFile>|UploadedFile|null
      */
     protected function getValueDotNotationSyntax(array $index, array $value)
     {
diff --git a/system/HTTP/IncomingRequest.php b/system/HTTP/IncomingRequest.php
old mode 100644
new mode 100755
index 079a3b69..8bc246f7
--- a/system/HTTP/IncomingRequest.php
+++ b/system/HTTP/IncomingRequest.php
@@ -152,7 +152,7 @@ class IncomingRequest extends Request
      */
     public function __construct($config, ?URI $uri = null, $body = 'php://input', ?UserAgent $userAgent = null)
     {
-        if (empty($uri) || empty($userAgent)) {
+        if (! $uri instanceof URI || ! $userAgent instanceof UserAgent) {
             throw new InvalidArgumentException('You must supply the parameters: uri, userAgent.');
         }
 
@@ -169,9 +169,14 @@ class IncomingRequest extends Request
             $body = file_get_contents('php://input');
         }
 
+        // If file_get_contents() returns false or empty string, set null.
+        if ($body === false || $body === '') {
+            $body = null;
+        }
+
         $this->config       = $config;
         $this->uri          = $uri;
-        $this->body         = ! empty($body) ? $body : null;
+        $this->body         = $body;
         $this->userAgent    = $userAgent;
         $this->validLocales = $config->supportedLocales;
 
@@ -251,7 +256,7 @@ class IncomingRequest extends Request
      */
     public function detectPath(string $protocol = ''): string
     {
-        if (empty($protocol)) {
+        if ($protocol === '') {
             $protocol = 'REQUEST_URI';
         }
 
@@ -568,10 +573,22 @@ class IncomingRequest extends Request
      * @see http://php.net/manual/en/function.json-decode.php
      *
      * @return array|bool|float|int|stdClass|null
+     *
+     * @throws HTTPException When the body is invalid as JSON.
      */
     public function getJSON(bool $assoc = false, int $depth = 512, int $options = 0)
     {
-        return json_decode($this->body ?? '', $assoc, $depth, $options);
+        if ($this->body === null) {
+            return null;
+        }
+
+        $result = json_decode($this->body, $assoc, $depth, $options);
+
+        if (json_last_error() !== JSON_ERROR_NONE) {
+            throw HTTPException::forInvalidJSON(json_last_error_msg());
+        }
+
+        return $result;
     }
 
     /**
diff --git a/system/HTTP/Negotiate.php b/system/HTTP/Negotiate.php
index b1d5fdfa..9c903908 100644
--- a/system/HTTP/Negotiate.php
+++ b/system/HTTP/Negotiate.php
@@ -93,7 +93,7 @@ class Negotiate
 
         // If no charset is shown as a match, ignore the directive
         // as allowed by the RFC, and tell it a default value.
-        if (empty($match)) {
+        if ($match === '') {
             return 'utf-8';
         }
 
@@ -154,11 +154,11 @@ class Negotiate
         bool $strictMatch = false,
         bool $matchLocales = false
     ): string {
-        if (empty($supported)) {
+        if ($supported === []) {
             throw HTTPException::forEmptySupportedNegotiations();
         }
 
-        if (empty($header)) {
+        if ($header === null || $header === '') {
             return $strictMatch ? '' : $supported[0];
         }
 
diff --git a/system/HTTP/RequestTrait.php b/system/HTTP/RequestTrait.php
index 52ffa812..6db903dd 100644
--- a/system/HTTP/RequestTrait.php
+++ b/system/HTTP/RequestTrait.php
@@ -35,10 +35,9 @@ trait RequestTrait
     protected $ipAddress = '';
 
     /**
-     * Stores values we've retrieved from
-     * PHP globals.
+     * Stores values we've retrieved from PHP globals.
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array{get?: array, post?: array, request?: array, cookie?: array, server?: array}
      */
     protected $globals = [];
 
@@ -204,22 +203,27 @@ trait RequestTrait
      * @param array|int|null    $flags
      *
      * @return mixed
+     *
+     * @deprecated 4.4.4 This method does not work from the beginning. Use `env()`.
      */
     public function getEnv($index = null, $filter = null, $flags = null)
     {
+        // @phpstan-ignore-next-line
         return $this->fetchGlobal('env', $index, $filter, $flags);
     }
 
     /**
      * Allows manually setting the value of PHP global, like $_GET, $_POST, etc.
      *
+     * @param string $name Supergrlobal name (lowercase)
+     * @phpstan-param 'get'|'post'|'request'|'cookie'|'server' $name
      * @param mixed $value
      *
      * @return $this
      */
-    public function setGlobal(string $method, $value)
+    public function setGlobal(string $name, $value)
     {
-        $this->globals[$method] = $value;
+        $this->globals[$name] = $value;
 
         return $this;
     }
@@ -234,19 +238,18 @@ trait RequestTrait
      *
      * http://php.net/manual/en/filter.filters.sanitize.php
      *
-     * @param string            $method Input filter constant
+     * @param string $name Supergrlobal name (lowercase)
+     * @phpstan-param 'get'|'post'|'request'|'cookie'|'server' $name
      * @param array|string|null $index
      * @param int|null          $filter Filter constant
      * @param array|int|null    $flags  Options
      *
      * @return array|bool|float|int|object|string|null
      */
-    public function fetchGlobal(string $method, $index = null, ?int $filter = null, $flags = null)
+    public function fetchGlobal(string $name, $index = null, ?int $filter = null, $flags = null)
     {
-        $method = strtolower($method);
-
-        if (! isset($this->globals[$method])) {
-            $this->populateGlobals($method);
+        if (! isset($this->globals[$name])) {
+            $this->populateGlobals($name);
         }
 
         // Null filters cause null values to return.
@@ -257,9 +260,9 @@ trait RequestTrait
         if ($index === null) {
             $values = [];
 
-            foreach ($this->globals[$method] as $key => $value) {
+            foreach ($this->globals[$name] as $key => $value) {
                 $values[$key] = is_array($value)
-                    ? $this->fetchGlobal($method, $key, $filter, $flags)
+                    ? $this->fetchGlobal($name, $key, $filter, $flags)
                     : filter_var($value, $filter, $flags);
             }
 
@@ -271,7 +274,7 @@ trait RequestTrait
             $output = [];
 
             foreach ($index as $key) {
-                $output[$key] = $this->fetchGlobal($method, $key, $filter, $flags);
+                $output[$key] = $this->fetchGlobal($name, $key, $filter, $flags);
             }
 
             return $output;
@@ -279,7 +282,7 @@ trait RequestTrait
 
         // Does the index contain array notation?
         if (($count = preg_match_all('/(?:^[^\[]+)|\[[^]]*\]/', $index, $matches)) > 1) {
-            $value = $this->globals[$method];
+            $value = $this->globals[$name];
 
             for ($i = 0; $i < $count; $i++) {
                 $key = trim($matches[0][$i], '[]');
@@ -297,7 +300,7 @@ trait RequestTrait
         }
 
         if (! isset($value)) {
-            $value = $this->globals[$method][$index] ?? null;
+            $value = $this->globals[$name][$index] ?? null;
         }
 
         if (is_array($value)
@@ -326,20 +329,23 @@ trait RequestTrait
     }
 
     /**
-     * Saves a copy of the current state of one of several PHP globals
+     * Saves a copy of the current state of one of several PHP globals,
      * so we can retrieve them later.
      *
+     * @param string $name Superglobal name (lowercase)
+     * @phpstan-param 'get'|'post'|'request'|'cookie'|'server' $name
+     *
      * @return void
      */
-    protected function populateGlobals(string $method)
+    protected function populateGlobals(string $name)
     {
-        if (! isset($this->globals[$method])) {
-            $this->globals[$method] = [];
+        if (! isset($this->globals[$name])) {
+            $this->globals[$name] = [];
         }
 
         // Don't populate ENV as it might contain
         // sensitive data that we don't want to get logged.
-        switch ($method) {
+        switch ($name) {
             case 'get':
                 $this->globals['get'] = $_GET;
                 break;
diff --git a/system/HTTP/ResponseInterface.php b/system/HTTP/ResponseInterface.php
index 878d1488..a6d41c77 100644
--- a/system/HTTP/ResponseInterface.php
+++ b/system/HTTP/ResponseInterface.php
@@ -110,8 +110,6 @@ interface ResponseInterface extends MessageInterface
      * to understand and satisfy the request.
      *
      * @return int Status code.
-     *
-     * @deprecated To be replaced by the PSR-7 version (compatible)
      */
     public function getStatusCode(): int;
 
diff --git a/system/HTTP/ResponseTrait.php b/system/HTTP/ResponseTrait.php
index 7c074131..b385bfea 100644
--- a/system/HTTP/ResponseTrait.php
+++ b/system/HTTP/ResponseTrait.php
@@ -156,13 +156,13 @@ trait ResponseTrait
         }
 
         // Unknown and no message?
-        if (! array_key_exists($code, static::$statusCodes) && empty($reason)) {
+        if (! array_key_exists($code, static::$statusCodes) && ($reason === '')) {
             throw HTTPException::forUnkownStatusCode($code);
         }
 
         $this->statusCode = $code;
 
-        $this->reason = ! empty($reason) ? $reason : static::$statusCodes[$code];
+        $this->reason = ($reason !== '') ? $reason : static::$statusCodes[$code];
 
         return $this;
     }
@@ -226,7 +226,7 @@ trait ResponseTrait
     public function setContentType(string $mime, string $charset = 'UTF-8')
     {
         // add charset attribute if not already there and provided as parm
-        if ((strpos($mime, 'charset=') < 1) && ! empty($charset)) {
+        if ((strpos($mime, 'charset=') < 1) && ($charset !== '')) {
             $mime .= '; charset=' . $charset;
         }
 
@@ -377,7 +377,7 @@ trait ResponseTrait
      */
     public function setCache(array $options = [])
     {
-        if (empty($options)) {
+        if ($options === []) {
             return $this;
         }
 
diff --git a/system/HTTP/SiteURI.php b/system/HTTP/SiteURI.php
index d01f614a..6d565073 100644
--- a/system/HTTP/SiteURI.php
+++ b/system/HTTP/SiteURI.php
@@ -197,7 +197,7 @@ class SiteURI extends URI
         // Validate baseURL
         if (filter_var($baseURL, FILTER_VALIDATE_URL) === false) {
             throw new ConfigException(
-                'Config\App::$baseURL is invalid.'
+                'Config\App::$baseURL "' . $baseURL . '" is not a valid URL.'
             );
         }
 
diff --git a/system/HTTP/URI.php b/system/HTTP/URI.php
index 608f8b75..5bec3801 100644
--- a/system/HTTP/URI.php
+++ b/system/HTTP/URI.php
@@ -163,11 +163,11 @@ class URI
         ?string $fragment = null
     ): string {
         $uri = '';
-        if (! empty($scheme)) {
+        if ($scheme !== null && $scheme !== '') {
             $uri .= $scheme . '://';
         }
 
-        if (! empty($authority)) {
+        if ($authority !== null && $authority !== '') {
             $uri .= $authority;
         }
 
@@ -886,7 +886,7 @@ class URI
         }
 
         // Can't have leading ?
-        if (! empty($query) && strpos($query, '?') === 0) {
+        if ($query !== '' && strpos($query, '?') === 0) {
             $query = substr($query, 1);
         }
 
@@ -1097,7 +1097,7 @@ class URI
         $transformed = clone $relative;
 
         // 5.2.2 Transform References in a non-strict method (no scheme)
-        if (! empty($relative->getAuthority())) {
+        if ($relative->getAuthority() !== '') {
             $transformed
                 ->setAuthority($relative->getAuthority())
                 ->setPath($relative->getPath())
@@ -1139,7 +1139,7 @@ class URI
      */
     protected function mergePaths(self $base, self $reference): string
     {
-        if (! empty($base->getAuthority()) && $base->getPath() === '') {
+        if ($base->getAuthority() !== '' && $base->getPath() === '') {
             return '/' . ltrim($reference->getPath(), '/ ');
         }
 
diff --git a/system/HTTP/UserAgent.php b/system/HTTP/UserAgent.php
index 77e7cb43..2294b02a 100644
--- a/system/HTTP/UserAgent.php
+++ b/system/HTTP/UserAgent.php
@@ -260,7 +260,7 @@ class UserAgent
         // Set the new user-agent string and parse it, unless empty
         $this->agent = $string;
 
-        if (! empty($string)) {
+        if ($string !== '') {
             $this->compileData();
         }
     }
diff --git a/system/Helpers/array_helper.php b/system/Helpers/array_helper.php
index 65645c3c..b8bd1a4d 100644
--- a/system/Helpers/array_helper.php
+++ b/system/Helpers/array_helper.php
@@ -85,7 +85,7 @@ if (! function_exists('_array_search_dot')) {
 
         // If this is the last index, make sure to return it now,
         // and not try to recurse through things.
-        if (empty($indexes)) {
+        if ($indexes === []) {
             return $array[$currentIndex];
         }
 
@@ -152,7 +152,7 @@ if (! function_exists('array_sort_by_multiple_keys')) {
     function array_sort_by_multiple_keys(array &$array, array $sortColumns): bool
     {
         // Check if there really are columns to sort after
-        if (empty($sortColumns) || empty($array)) {
+        if ($sortColumns === [] || $array === []) {
             return false;
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Helpers/cookie_helper.php b/system/Helpers/cookie_helper.php
old mode 100644
new mode 100755
diff --git a/system/Helpers/date_helper.php b/system/Helpers/date_helper.php
index ba9c9a24..cf1dc33a 100644
--- a/system/Helpers/date_helper.php
+++ b/system/Helpers/date_helper.php
@@ -20,11 +20,13 @@ if (! function_exists('now')) {
      * Returns Time::now()->getTimestamp() based on the timezone parameter or on the
      * app_timezone() setting
      *
+     * @param non-empty-string|null $timezone
+     *
      * @throws Exception
      */
     function now(?string $timezone = null): int
     {
-        $timezone = empty($timezone) ? app_timezone() : $timezone;
+        $timezone = ($timezone === null || $timezone === '') ? app_timezone() : $timezone;
 
         if ($timezone === 'local' || $timezone === date_default_timezone_get()) {
             return Time::now()->getTimestamp();
diff --git a/system/Helpers/filesystem_helper.php b/system/Helpers/filesystem_helper.php
index 47c829bb..4e0e8b15 100644
--- a/system/Helpers/filesystem_helper.php
+++ b/system/Helpers/filesystem_helper.php
@@ -209,7 +209,7 @@ if (! function_exists('get_filenames')) {
 
         try {
             foreach (new RecursiveIteratorIterator(
-                new RecursiveDirectoryIterator($sourceDir, RecursiveDirectoryIterator::SKIP_DOTS),
+                new RecursiveDirectoryIterator($sourceDir, RecursiveDirectoryIterator::SKIP_DOTS | FilesystemIterator::FOLLOW_SYMLINKS),
                 RecursiveIteratorIterator::SELF_FIRST
             ) as $name => $object) {
                 $basename = pathinfo($name, PATHINFO_BASENAME);
diff --git a/system/Helpers/form_helper.php b/system/Helpers/form_helper.php
index 7edb05cf..d3abd7e2 100644
--- a/system/Helpers/form_helper.php
+++ b/system/Helpers/form_helper.php
@@ -288,7 +288,7 @@ if (! function_exists('form_dropdown')) {
         }
 
         // If no selected state was submitted we will attempt to set it automatically
-        if (empty($selected)) {
+        if ($selected === []) {
             if (is_array($data)) {
                 if (isset($data['name'], $_POST[$data['name']])) {
                     $selected = [$_POST[$data['name']]];
@@ -312,7 +312,7 @@ if (! function_exists('form_dropdown')) {
             $key = (string) $key;
 
             if (is_array($val)) {
-                if (empty($val)) {
+                if ($val === []) {
                     continue;
                 }
 
@@ -784,7 +784,7 @@ if (! function_exists('parse_form_attributes')) {
                     unset($attributes[$key]);
                 }
             }
-            if (! empty($attributes)) {
+            if ($attributes !== []) {
                 $default = array_merge($default, $attributes);
             }
         }
diff --git a/system/Helpers/html_helper.php b/system/Helpers/html_helper.php
old mode 100644
new mode 100755
index c7a36e27..075dcd51
--- a/system/Helpers/html_helper.php
+++ b/system/Helpers/html_helper.php
@@ -313,7 +313,7 @@ if (! function_exists('video')) {
             $video .= _space_indent() . $track . "\n";
         }
 
-        if (! empty($unsupportedMessage)) {
+        if ($unsupportedMessage !== '') {
             $video .= _space_indent()
                     . $unsupportedMessage
                     . "\n";
@@ -359,7 +359,7 @@ if (! function_exists('audio')) {
             $audio .= "\n" . _space_indent() . $track;
         }
 
-        if (! empty($unsupportedMessage)) {
+        if ($unsupportedMessage !== '') {
             $audio .= "\n" . _space_indent() . $unsupportedMessage . "\n";
         }
 
@@ -377,7 +377,7 @@ if (! function_exists('_media')) {
     {
         $media = '<' . $name;
 
-        if (empty($attributes)) {
+        if ($attributes === '') {
             $media .= '>';
         } else {
             $media .= ' ' . $attributes . '>';
@@ -393,7 +393,7 @@ if (! function_exists('_media')) {
             $media .= _space_indent() . $track . "\n";
         }
 
-        if (! empty($unsupportedMessage)) {
+        if ($unsupportedMessage !== '') {
             $media .= _space_indent() . $unsupportedMessage . "\n";
         }
 
@@ -421,7 +421,7 @@ if (! function_exists('source')) {
         $source = '<source src="' . $src
                 . '" type="' . $type . '"';
 
-        if (! empty($attributes)) {
+        if ($attributes !== '') {
             $source .= ' ' . $attributes;
         }
 
@@ -469,7 +469,7 @@ if (! function_exists('object')) {
         $object = '<object data="' . $data . '" '
                 . $attributes . '>';
 
-        if (! empty($params)) {
+        if ($params !== []) {
             $object .= "\n";
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Helpers/inflector_helper.php b/system/Helpers/inflector_helper.php
old mode 100644
new mode 100755
diff --git a/system/Helpers/kint_helper.php b/system/Helpers/kint_helper.php
index eaa2e947..4221573a 100644
--- a/system/Helpers/kint_helper.php
+++ b/system/Helpers/kint_helper.php
@@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ if (! function_exists('dd')) {
          *
          * @param array $vars
          *
-         * @phpstan-return never
+         * @return never
          *
          * @codeCoverageIgnore Can't be tested ... exits
          */
diff --git a/system/Helpers/number_helper.php b/system/Helpers/number_helper.php
index 74173501..8ca5d3e2 100644
--- a/system/Helpers/number_helper.php
+++ b/system/Helpers/number_helper.php
@@ -15,7 +15,8 @@ if (! function_exists('number_to_size')) {
     /**
      * Formats a numbers as bytes, based on size, and adds the appropriate suffix
      *
-     * @param int|string $num Will be cast as int
+     * @param int|string            $num    Will be cast as int
+     * @param non-empty-string|null $locale [optional]
      *
      * @return bool|string
      */
@@ -32,7 +33,7 @@ if (! function_exists('number_to_size')) {
 
         // ignore sub part
         $generalLocale = $locale;
-        if (! empty($locale) && ($underscorePos = strpos($locale, '_'))) {
+        if ($locale !== null && $locale !== '' && ($underscorePos = strpos($locale, '_'))) {
             $generalLocale = substr($locale, 0, $underscorePos);
         }
 
@@ -68,9 +69,9 @@ if (! function_exists('number_to_amount')) {
      *
      * @see https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Names_for_large_numbers
      *
-     * @param int|string  $num       Will be cast as int
-     * @param int         $precision [optional] The optional number of decimal digits to round to.
-     * @param string|null $locale    [optional]
+     * @param int|string            $num       Will be cast as int
+     * @param int                   $precision [optional] The optional number of decimal digits to round to.
+     * @param non-empty-string|null $locale    [optional]
      *
      * @return bool|string
      */
@@ -88,7 +89,7 @@ if (! function_exists('number_to_amount')) {
 
         // ignore sub part
         $generalLocale = $locale;
-        if (! empty($locale) && ($underscorePos = strpos($locale, '_'))) {
+        if ($locale !== null && $locale !== '' && ($underscorePos = strpos($locale, '_'))) {
             $generalLocale = substr($locale, 0, $underscorePos);
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Helpers/text_helper.php b/system/Helpers/text_helper.php
old mode 100644
new mode 100755
index 56cf856f..7db126fa
--- a/system/Helpers/text_helper.php
+++ b/system/Helpers/text_helper.php
@@ -98,7 +98,7 @@ if (! function_exists('ascii_to_entities')) {
 
                 $out .= $str[$i];
             } else {
-                if (empty($temp)) {
+                if ($temp === []) {
                     $count = ($ordinal < 224) ? 2 : 3;
                 }
 
@@ -172,7 +172,7 @@ if (! function_exists('word_censor')) {
      */
     function word_censor(string $str, array $censored, string $replacement = ''): string
     {
-        if (empty($censored)) {
+        if ($censored === []) {
             return $str;
         }
 
@@ -702,8 +702,6 @@ if (! function_exists('excerpt')) {
      * @param int    $radius   The amount of characters returned around the phrase.
      * @param string $ellipsis Ending that will be appended
      *
-     * @return string
-     *
      * If no $phrase is passed, will generate an excerpt of $radius characters
      * from the beginning of $text.
      */
diff --git a/system/Helpers/url_helper.php b/system/Helpers/url_helper.php
index 27e3ce1d..8099558a 100644
--- a/system/Helpers/url_helper.php
+++ b/system/Helpers/url_helper.php
@@ -290,7 +290,7 @@ if (! function_exists('safe_mailto')) {
             if ($ordinal < 128) {
                 $x[] = '|' . $ordinal;
             } else {
-                if (empty($temp)) {
+                if ($temp === []) {
                     $count = ($ordinal < 224) ? 2 : 3;
                 }
 
diff --git a/system/Honeypot/Honeypot.php b/system/Honeypot/Honeypot.php
index 82da9002..c0998c47 100644
--- a/system/Honeypot/Honeypot.php
+++ b/system/Honeypot/Honeypot.php
@@ -44,7 +44,7 @@ class Honeypot
             throw HoneypotException::forNoHiddenValue();
         }
 
-        if (empty($this->config->container) || strpos($this->config->container, '{template}') === false) {
+        if ($this->config->container === '' || strpos($this->config->container, '{template}') === false) {
             $this->config->container = '<div style="display:none">{template}</div>';
         }
 
@@ -78,6 +78,10 @@ class Honeypot
      */
     public function attachHoneypot(ResponseInterface $response)
     {
+        if ($response->getBody() === null) {
+            return;
+        }
+
         if ($response->getCSP()->enabled()) {
             // Add id attribute to the container tag.
             $this->config->container = str_ireplace(
diff --git a/system/HotReloader/HotReloader.php b/system/HotReloader/HotReloader.php
index 564ba544..579bcd4a 100644
--- a/system/HotReloader/HotReloader.php
+++ b/system/HotReloader/HotReloader.php
@@ -18,6 +18,10 @@ final class HotReloader
 {
     public function run(): void
     {
+        if (session_status() === PHP_SESSION_ACTIVE) {
+            session_write_close();
+        }
+
         ini_set('zlib.output_compression', 'Off');
 
         header('Cache-Control: no-store');
diff --git a/system/I18n/Time.php b/system/I18n/Time.php
index 520f38eb..f01718aa 100644
--- a/system/I18n/Time.php
+++ b/system/I18n/Time.php
@@ -19,7 +19,23 @@ use DateTimeImmutable;
  *
  * Requires the intl PHP extension.
  *
- * @property string $date
+ * @property int    $age         read-only
+ * @property string $day         read-only
+ * @property string $dayOfWeek   read-only
+ * @property string $dayOfYear   read-only
+ * @property bool   $dst         read-only
+ * @property string $hour        read-only
+ * @property bool   $local       read-only
+ * @property string $minute      read-only
+ * @property string $month       read-only
+ * @property string $quarter     read-only
+ * @property string $second      read-only
+ * @property int    $timestamp   read-only
+ * @property bool   $utc         read-only
+ * @property string $weekOfMonth read-only
+ * @property string $weekOfYear  read-only
+ * @property string $year        read-only
+ *
  * @see \CodeIgniter\I18n\TimeTest
  */
 class Time extends DateTimeImmutable
diff --git a/system/I18n/TimeLegacy.php b/system/I18n/TimeLegacy.php
index 7be9f80f..35523e32 100644
--- a/system/I18n/TimeLegacy.php
+++ b/system/I18n/TimeLegacy.php
@@ -20,7 +20,22 @@ use DateTime;
  * This is not immutable! Some methods are immutable,
  * but some methods can alter the state.
  *
- * @property string $date
+ * @property int    $age         read-only
+ * @property string $day         read-only
+ * @property string $dayOfWeek   read-only
+ * @property string $dayOfYear   read-only
+ * @property bool   $dst         read-only
+ * @property string $hour        read-only
+ * @property bool   $local       read-only
+ * @property string $minute      read-only
+ * @property string $month       read-only
+ * @property string $quarter     read-only
+ * @property string $second      read-only
+ * @property int    $timestamp   read-only
+ * @property bool   $utc         read-only
+ * @property string $weekOfMonth read-only
+ * @property string $weekOfYear  read-only
+ * @property string $year        read-only
  *
  * @deprecated Use Time instead.
  * @see \CodeIgniter\I18n\TimeLegacyTest
diff --git a/system/I18n/TimeTrait.php b/system/I18n/TimeTrait.php
index 7f2068b7..93f03d8a 100644
--- a/system/I18n/TimeTrait.php
+++ b/system/I18n/TimeTrait.php
@@ -212,14 +212,22 @@ trait TimeTrait
      *
      * @throws Exception
      */
-    public static function create(?int $year = null, ?int $month = null, ?int $day = null, ?int $hour = null, ?int $minutes = null, ?int $seconds = null, $timezone = null, ?string $locale = null)
-    {
+    public static function create(
+        ?int $year = null,
+        ?int $month = null,
+        ?int $day = null,
+        ?int $hour = null,
+        ?int $minutes = null,
+        ?int $seconds = null,
+        $timezone = null,
+        ?string $locale = null
+    ) {
         $year ??= date('Y');
         $month ??= date('m');
         $day ??= date('d');
-        $hour    = empty($hour) ? 0 : $hour;
-        $minutes = empty($minutes) ? 0 : $minutes;
-        $seconds = empty($seconds) ? 0 : $seconds;
+        $hour ??= 0;
+        $minutes ??= 0;
+        $seconds ??= 0;
 
         return new self(date('Y-m-d H:i:s', strtotime("{$year}-{$month}-{$day} {$hour}:{$minutes}:{$seconds}")), $timezone, $locale);
     }
@@ -1182,6 +1190,8 @@ trait TimeTrait
         $timezone = $this->timezone;
 
         $this->timezone = new DateTimeZone($timezone);
+
+        // @phpstan-ignore-next-line `$this->date` is a special property for PHP internal use.
         parent::__construct($this->date, $this->timezone);
     }
 }
diff --git a/system/Images/Handlers/BaseHandler.php b/system/Images/Handlers/BaseHandler.php
index cf23fd0f..92644eed 100644
--- a/system/Images/Handlers/BaseHandler.php
+++ b/system/Images/Handlers/BaseHandler.php
@@ -691,6 +691,8 @@ abstract class BaseHandler implements ImageHandlerInterface
      *    $image->resize(100, 200, true)
      *          ->save($target);
      *
+     * @param non-empty-string|null $target
+     *
      * @return bool
      */
     abstract public function save(?string $target = null, int $quality = 90);
diff --git a/system/Images/Handlers/GDHandler.php b/system/Images/Handlers/GDHandler.php
index 15bb97b6..f2cd5587 100644
--- a/system/Images/Handlers/GDHandler.php
+++ b/system/Images/Handlers/GDHandler.php
@@ -204,11 +204,13 @@ class GDHandler extends BaseHandler
      * Example:
      *    $image->resize(100, 200, true)
      *          ->save();
+     *
+     * @param non-empty-string|null $target
      */
     public function save(?string $target = null, int $quality = 90): bool
     {
         $original = $target;
-        $target   = empty($target) ? $this->image()->getPathname() : $target;
+        $target   = ($target === null || $target === '') ? $this->image()->getPathname() : $target;
 
         // If no new resource has been created, then we're
         // simply copy the existing one.
@@ -227,6 +229,7 @@ class GDHandler extends BaseHandler
 
         // for png and webp we can actually preserve transparency
         if (in_array($this->image()->imageType, $this->supportTransparency, true)) {
+            imagepalettetotruecolor($this->resource);
             imagealphablending($this->resource, false);
             imagesavealpha($this->resource, true);
         }
diff --git a/system/Images/Handlers/ImageMagickHandler.php b/system/Images/Handlers/ImageMagickHandler.php
index 857a273d..7dd5e5d7 100644
--- a/system/Images/Handlers/ImageMagickHandler.php
+++ b/system/Images/Handlers/ImageMagickHandler.php
@@ -223,11 +223,13 @@ class ImageMagickHandler extends BaseHandler
      * Example:
      *    $image->resize(100, 200, true)
      *          ->save();
+     *
+     * @param non-empty-string|null $target
      */
     public function save(?string $target = null, int $quality = 90): bool
     {
         $original = $target;
-        $target   = empty($target) ? $this->image()->getPathname() : $target;
+        $target   = ($target === null || $target === '') ? $this->image()->getPathname() : $target;
 
         // If no new resource has been created, then we're
         // simply copy the existing one.
diff --git a/system/Images/ImageHandlerInterface.php b/system/Images/ImageHandlerInterface.php
index 1c3593a9..76a016b0 100644
--- a/system/Images/ImageHandlerInterface.php
+++ b/system/Images/ImageHandlerInterface.php
@@ -132,7 +132,7 @@ interface ImageHandlerInterface
      *    $image->resize(100, 200, true)
      *          ->save($target);
      *
-     * @param string|null $target The path to save the file to.
+     * @param non-empty-string|null $target The path to save the file to.
      *
      * @return bool
      */
diff --git a/system/Language/Language.php b/system/Language/Language.php
index 32eee39f..8633f8a2 100644
--- a/system/Language/Language.php
+++ b/system/Language/Language.php
@@ -88,7 +88,7 @@ class Language
      * Parses the language string for a file, loads the file, if necessary,
      * getting the line.
      *
-     * @return string|string[]
+     * @return list<string>|string
      */
     public function getLine(string $line, array $args = [])
     {
diff --git a/system/Language/en/HTTP.php b/system/Language/en/HTTP.php
index a7861c71..ee5ca4f8 100644
--- a/system/Language/en/HTTP.php
+++ b/system/Language/en/HTTP.php
@@ -19,6 +19,8 @@ return [
 
     // IncomingRequest
     'invalidNegotiationType' => '"{0}" is not a valid negotiation type. Must be one of: media, charset, encoding, language.',
+    'invalidJSON'            => 'Failed to parse JSON string. Error: {0}',
+    'unsupportedJSONFormat'  => 'The provided JSON format is not supported.',
 
     // Message
     'invalidHTTPProtocol' => 'Invalid HTTP Protocol Version: {0}',
diff --git a/system/Log/Logger.php b/system/Log/Logger.php
index afd70314..e5f482cb 100644
--- a/system/Log/Logger.php
+++ b/system/Log/Logger.php
@@ -93,8 +93,7 @@ class Logger implements LoggerInterface
      * value is an associative array of configuration
      * items.
      *
-     * @var array
-     * @phpstan-var array<class-string, array<string, list<string>|string|int>>
+     * @var array<class-string, array<string, int|list<string>|string>>
      */
     protected $handlerConfig = [];
 
@@ -138,7 +137,7 @@ class Logger implements LoggerInterface
 
         $this->dateFormat = $config->dateFormat ?? $this->dateFormat;
 
-        if (! is_array($config->handlers) || empty($config->handlers)) {
+        if (! is_array($config->handlers) || $config->handlers === []) {
             throw LogException::forNoHandlers('LoggerConfig');
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Model.php b/system/Model.php
index e53c0aae..5dba810c 100644
--- a/system/Model.php
+++ b/system/Model.php
@@ -84,6 +84,8 @@ use ReflectionProperty;
  * @method $this where($key, $value = null, ?bool $escape = null)
  * @method $this whereIn(?string $key = null, $values = null, ?bool $escape = null)
  * @method $this whereNotIn(?string $key = null, $values = null, ?bool $escape = null)
+ *
+ * @phpstan-import-type row_array from BaseModel
  */
 class Model extends BaseModel
 {
@@ -178,6 +180,7 @@ class Model extends BaseModel
      * @param array|int|string|null $id        One primary key or an array of primary keys
      *
      * @return array|object|null The resulting row of data, or null.
+     * @phpstan-return ($singleton is true ? row_array|null|object : list<row_array|object>)
      */
     protected function doFind(bool $singleton, $id = null)
     {
@@ -209,6 +212,7 @@ class Model extends BaseModel
      * @param string $columnName Column Name
      *
      * @return array|null The resulting row of data, or null if no data found.
+     * @phpstan-return list<row_array>|null
      */
     protected function doFindColumn(string $columnName)
     {
@@ -224,6 +228,7 @@ class Model extends BaseModel
      * @param int $offset Offset
      *
      * @return array
+     * @phpstan-return list<row_array|object>
      */
     protected function doFindAll(int $limit = 0, int $offset = 0)
     {
@@ -244,6 +249,7 @@ class Model extends BaseModel
      * This method works only with dbCalls.
      *
      * @return array|object|null
+     * @phpstan-return row_array|object|null
      */
     protected function doFirst()
     {
@@ -251,13 +257,13 @@ class Model extends BaseModel
 
         if ($this->tempUseSoftDeletes) {
             $builder->where($this->table . '.' . $this->deletedField, null);
-        } elseif ($this->useSoftDeletes && empty($builder->QBGroupBy) && $this->primaryKey) {
+        } elseif ($this->useSoftDeletes && ($builder->QBGroupBy === []) && $this->primaryKey) {
             $builder->groupBy($this->table . '.' . $this->primaryKey);
         }
 
         // Some databases, like PostgreSQL, need order
         // information to consistently return correct results.
-        if ($builder->QBGroupBy && empty($builder->QBOrderBy) && $this->primaryKey) {
+        if ($builder->QBGroupBy && ($builder->QBOrderBy === []) && $this->primaryKey) {
             $builder->orderBy($this->table . '.' . $this->primaryKey, 'asc');
         }
 
@@ -268,29 +274,30 @@ class Model extends BaseModel
      * Inserts data into the current table.
      * This method works only with dbCalls.
      *
-     * @param array $data Data
+     * @param array $row Row data
+     * @phpstan-param row_array $row
      *
      * @return bool
      */
-    protected function doInsert(array $data)
+    protected function doInsert(array $row)
     {
         $escape       = $this->escape;
         $this->escape = [];
 
         // Require non-empty primaryKey when
         // not using auto-increment feature
-        if (! $this->useAutoIncrement && empty($data[$this->primaryKey])) {
+        if (! $this->useAutoIncrement && ! isset($row[$this->primaryKey])) {
             throw DataException::forEmptyPrimaryKey('insert');
         }
 
         $builder = $this->builder();
 
         // Must use the set() method to ensure to set the correct escape flag
-        foreach ($data as $key => $val) {
+        foreach ($row as $key => $val) {
             $builder->set($key, $val, $escape[$key] ?? null);
         }
 
-        if ($this->allowEmptyInserts && empty($data)) {
+        if ($this->allowEmptyInserts && $row === []) {
             $table = $this->db->protectIdentifiers($this->table, true, null, false);
             if ($this->db->getPlatform() === 'MySQLi') {
                 $sql = 'INSERT INTO ' . $table . ' VALUES ()';
@@ -321,7 +328,7 @@ class Model extends BaseModel
 
         // If insertion succeeded then save the insert ID
         if ($result) {
-            $this->insertID = ! $this->useAutoIncrement ? $data[$this->primaryKey] : $this->db->insertID();
+            $this->insertID = ! $this->useAutoIncrement ? $row[$this->primaryKey] : $this->db->insertID();
         }
 
         return $result;
@@ -344,7 +351,7 @@ class Model extends BaseModel
             foreach ($set as $row) {
                 // Require non-empty primaryKey when
                 // not using auto-increment feature
-                if (! $this->useAutoIncrement && empty($row[$this->primaryKey])) {
+                if (! $this->useAutoIncrement && ! isset($row[$this->primaryKey])) {
                     throw DataException::forEmptyPrimaryKey('insertBatch');
                 }
             }
@@ -358,9 +365,10 @@ class Model extends BaseModel
      * This method works only with dbCalls.
      *
      * @param array|int|string|null $id
-     * @param array|null            $data
+     * @param array|null            $row Row data
+     * @phpstan-param row_array|null $row
      */
-    protected function doUpdate($id = null, $data = null): bool
+    protected function doUpdate($id = null, $row = null): bool
     {
         $escape       = $this->escape;
         $this->escape = [];
@@ -372,7 +380,7 @@ class Model extends BaseModel
         }
 
         // Must use the set() method to ensure to set the correct escape flag
-        foreach ($data as $key => $val) {
+        foreach ($row as $key => $val) {
             $builder->set($key, $val, $escape[$key] ?? null);
         }
 
@@ -411,7 +419,7 @@ class Model extends BaseModel
      * @param array|int|string|null $id    The rows primary key(s)
      * @param bool                  $purge Allows overriding the soft deletes setting.
      *
-     * @return bool|string
+     * @return bool|string SQL string when testMode
      *
      * @throws DatabaseException
      */
@@ -425,7 +433,7 @@ class Model extends BaseModel
         }
 
         if ($this->useSoftDeletes && ! $purge) {
-            if (empty($builder->getCompiledQBWhere())) {
+            if ($builder->getCompiledQBWhere() === []) {
                 throw new DatabaseException(
                     'Deletes are not allowed unless they contain a "where" or "like" clause.'
                 );
@@ -435,7 +443,7 @@ class Model extends BaseModel
 
             $set[$this->deletedField] = $this->setDate();
 
-            if ($this->useTimestamps && $this->updatedField) {
+            if ($this->useTimestamps && $this->updatedField !== '') {
                 $set[$this->updatedField] = $this->setDate();
             }
 
@@ -450,7 +458,7 @@ class Model extends BaseModel
      * through soft deletes (deleted = 1)
      * This method works only with dbCalls.
      *
-     * @return bool|string Returns a string if in test mode.
+     * @return bool|string Returns a SQL string if in test mode.
      */
     protected function doPurgeDeleted()
     {
@@ -475,14 +483,15 @@ class Model extends BaseModel
      * Compiles a replace into string and runs the query
      * This method works only with dbCalls.
      *
-     * @param array|null $data      Data
-     * @param bool       $returnSQL Set to true to return Query String
+     * @param array|null $row Data
+     * @phpstan-param row_array|null $row
+     * @param bool $returnSQL Set to true to return Query String
      *
      * @return BaseResult|false|Query|string
      */
-    protected function doReplace(?array $data = null, bool $returnSQL = false)
+    protected function doReplace(?array $row = null, bool $returnSQL = false)
     {
-        return $this->builder()->testMode($returnSQL)->replace($data);
+        return $this->builder()->testMode($returnSQL)->replace($row);
     }
 
     /**
@@ -491,7 +500,7 @@ class Model extends BaseModel
      *  ['source' => 'message']
      * This method works only with dbCalls.
      *
-     * @return array<string,string>
+     * @return array<string, string>
      */
     protected function doErrors()
     {
@@ -522,18 +531,34 @@ class Model extends BaseModel
     /**
      * Returns the id value for the data array or object
      *
-     * @param array|object $data Data
+     * @param array|object $row Row data
+     * @phpstan-param row_array|object $row
      *
      * @return array|int|string|null
      */
-    public function getIdValue($data)
+    public function getIdValue($row)
     {
-        if (is_object($data) && isset($data->{$this->primaryKey})) {
-            return $data->{$this->primaryKey};
+        if (is_object($row) && isset($row->{$this->primaryKey})) {
+            // Get the raw primary key value of the Entity.
+            if ($row instanceof Entity) {
+                $cast = $row->cast();
+
+                // Disable Entity casting, because raw primary key value is needed for database.
+                $row->cast(false);
+
+                $primaryKey = $row->{$this->primaryKey};
+
+                // Restore Entity casting setting.
+                $row->cast($cast);
+
+                return $primaryKey;
+            }
+
+            return $row->{$this->primaryKey};
         }
 
-        if (is_array($data) && ! empty($data[$this->primaryKey])) {
-            return $data[$this->primaryKey];
+        if (is_array($row) && isset($row[$this->primaryKey])) {
+            return $row[$this->primaryKey];
         }
 
         return null;
@@ -566,7 +591,7 @@ class Model extends BaseModel
 
             $offset += $size;
 
-            if (empty($rows)) {
+            if ($rows === []) {
                 continue;
             }
 
@@ -602,6 +627,8 @@ class Model extends BaseModel
     /**
      * Provides a shared instance of the Query Builder.
      *
+     * @param non-empty-string|null $table
+     *
      * @return BaseBuilder
      *
      * @throws ModelException
@@ -621,11 +648,11 @@ class Model extends BaseModel
         // We're going to force a primary key to exist
         // so we don't have overly convoluted code,
         // and future features are likely to require them.
-        if (empty($this->primaryKey)) {
+        if ($this->primaryKey === '') {
             throw ModelException::forNoPrimaryKey(static::class);
         }
 
-        $table = empty($table) ? $this->table : $table;
+        $table = ($table === null || $table === '') ? $this->table : $table;
 
         // Ensure we have a good db connection
         if (! $this->db instanceof BaseConnection) {
@@ -670,11 +697,11 @@ class Model extends BaseModel
      * This method is called on save to determine if entry have to be updated
      * If this method return false insert operation will be executed
      *
-     * @param array|object $data Data
+     * @param array|object $row Data
      */
-    protected function shouldUpdate($data): bool
+    protected function shouldUpdate($row): bool
     {
-        if (parent::shouldUpdate($data) === false) {
+        if (parent::shouldUpdate($row) === false) {
             return false;
         }
 
@@ -684,70 +711,73 @@ class Model extends BaseModel
 
         // When useAutoIncrement feature is disabled, check
         // in the database if given record already exists
-        return $this->where($this->primaryKey, $this->getIdValue($data))->countAllResults() === 1;
+        return $this->where($this->primaryKey, $this->getIdValue($row))->countAllResults() === 1;
     }
 
     /**
      * Inserts data into the database. If an object is provided,
      * it will attempt to convert it to an array.
      *
-     * @param array|object|null $data
-     * @param bool              $returnID Whether insert ID should be returned or not.
+     * @param array|object|null $row
+     * @phpstan-param row_array|object|null $row
+     * @param bool $returnID Whether insert ID should be returned or not.
      *
-     * @return BaseResult|false|int|object|string
+     * @return bool|int|string
+     * @phpstan-return ($returnID is true ? int|string|false : bool)
      *
      * @throws ReflectionException
      */
-    public function insert($data = null, bool $returnID = true)
+    public function insert($row = null, bool $returnID = true)
     {
-        if (! empty($this->tempData['data'])) {
-            if (empty($data)) {
-                $data = $this->tempData['data'];
+        if (isset($this->tempData['data'])) {
+            if ($row === null) {
+                $row = $this->tempData['data'];
             } else {
-                $data = $this->transformDataToArray($data, 'insert');
-                $data = array_merge($this->tempData['data'], $data);
+                $row = $this->transformDataToArray($row, 'insert');
+                $row = array_merge($this->tempData['data'], $row);
             }
         }
 
         $this->escape   = $this->tempData['escape'] ?? [];
         $this->tempData = [];
 
-        return parent::insert($data, $returnID);
+        return parent::insert($row, $returnID);
     }
 
     /**
      * Ensures that only the fields that are allowed to be inserted are in
      * the data array.
      *
-     * Used by insert() and insertBatch() to protect against mass assignment
-     * vulnerabilities.
+     * @used-by insert() to protect against mass assignment vulnerabilities.
+     * @used-by insertBatch() to protect against mass assignment vulnerabilities.
      *
-     * @param array $data Data
+     * @param array $row Row data
+     * @phpstan-param row_array $row
      *
      * @throws DataException
      */
-    protected function doProtectFieldsForInsert(array $data): array
+    protected function doProtectFieldsForInsert(array $row): array
     {
         if (! $this->protectFields) {
-            return $data;
+            return $row;
         }
 
-        if (empty($this->allowedFields)) {
+        if ($this->allowedFields === []) {
             throw DataException::forInvalidAllowedFields(static::class);
         }
 
-        foreach (array_keys($data) as $key) {
+        foreach (array_keys($row) as $key) {
             // Do not remove the non-auto-incrementing primary key data.
             if ($this->useAutoIncrement === false && $key === $this->primaryKey) {
                 continue;
             }
 
             if (! in_array($key, $this->allowedFields, true)) {
-                unset($data[$key]);
+                unset($row[$key]);
             }
         }
 
-        return $data;
+        return $row;
     }
 
     /**
@@ -755,71 +785,42 @@ class Model extends BaseModel
      * it will attempt to convert it into an array.
      *
      * @param array|int|string|null $id
-     * @param array|object|null     $data
+     * @param array|object|null     $row
+     * @phpstan-param row_array|object|null $row
      *
      * @throws ReflectionException
      */
-    public function update($id = null, $data = null): bool
+    public function update($id = null, $row = null): bool
     {
-        if (! empty($this->tempData['data'])) {
-            if (empty($data)) {
-                $data = $this->tempData['data'];
+        if (isset($this->tempData['data'])) {
+            if ($row === null) {
+                $row = $this->tempData['data'];
             } else {
-                $data = $this->transformDataToArray($data, 'update');
-                $data = array_merge($this->tempData['data'], $data);
+                $row = $this->transformDataToArray($row, 'update');
+                $row = array_merge($this->tempData['data'], $row);
             }
         }
 
         $this->escape   = $this->tempData['escape'] ?? [];
         $this->tempData = [];
 
-        return parent::update($id, $data);
+        return parent::update($id, $row);
     }
 
     /**
      * Takes a class and returns an array of its public and protected
      * properties as an array with raw values.
      *
-     * @param object|string $data
-     * @param bool          $recursive If true, inner entities will be cast as array as well
+     * @param object $object    Object
+     * @param bool   $recursive If true, inner entities will be cast as array as well
      *
-     * @return array|null Array
+     * @return array<string, mixed>
      *
      * @throws ReflectionException
      */
-    protected function objectToRawArray($data, bool $onlyChanged = true, bool $recursive = false): ?array
+    protected function objectToRawArray($object, bool $onlyChanged = true, bool $recursive = false): array
     {
-        $properties = parent::objectToRawArray($data, $onlyChanged);
-
-        $primaryKey = null;
-
-        if ($data instanceof Entity) {
-            $cast = $data->cast();
-
-            // Disable Entity casting, because raw primary key data is needed for database.
-            $data->cast(false);
-
-            $primaryKey = $data->{$this->primaryKey};
-
-            // Restore Entity casting setting.
-            $data->cast($cast);
-        }
-
-        // Always grab the primary key otherwise updates will fail.
-        if (
-            // @TODO Should use `$data instanceof Entity`.
-            method_exists($data, 'toRawArray')
-            && (
-                ! empty($properties)
-                && ! empty($this->primaryKey)
-                && ! in_array($this->primaryKey, $properties, true)
-                && ! empty($primaryKey)
-            )
-        ) {
-            $properties[$this->primaryKey] = $primaryKey;
-        }
-
-        return $properties;
+        return parent::objectToRawArray($object, $onlyChanged);
     }
 
     /**
@@ -909,7 +910,7 @@ class Model extends BaseModel
             $properties = $data->toRawArray($onlyChanged);
 
             // Always grab the primary key otherwise updates will fail.
-            if (! empty($properties) && ! empty($primaryKey) && ! in_array($primaryKey, $properties, true) && ! empty($data->{$primaryKey})) {
+            if ($properties !== [] && isset($primaryKey) && ! in_array($primaryKey, $properties, true) && isset($data->{$primaryKey})) {
                 $properties[$primaryKey] = $data->{$primaryKey};
             }
         } else {
diff --git a/system/Modules/Modules.php b/system/Modules/Modules.php
index f99e7215..e17b9f3c 100644
--- a/system/Modules/Modules.php
+++ b/system/Modules/Modules.php
@@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ class Modules
     /**
      * Auto-Discover Rules Handler
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var list<string>
      */
     public $aliases = [];
 
diff --git a/system/Pager/Pager.php b/system/Pager/Pager.php
index b08cb004..d9de5faa 100644
--- a/system/Pager/Pager.php
+++ b/system/Pager/Pager.php
@@ -310,7 +310,7 @@ class Pager implements PagerInterface
         $curr = $this->getCurrentPage($group);
         $page = null;
 
-        if (! empty($last) && ! empty($curr) && $last === $curr) {
+        if (! empty($last) && $curr !== 0 && $last === $curr) {
             return null;
         }
 
@@ -334,7 +334,7 @@ class Pager implements PagerInterface
         $curr  = $this->getCurrentPage($group);
         $page  = null;
 
-        if (! empty($first) && ! empty($curr) && $first === $curr) {
+        if ($first !== 0 && $curr !== 0 && $first === $curr) {
             return null;
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Pager/PagerRenderer.php b/system/Pager/PagerRenderer.php
index 454ac9f1..9e6d2950 100644
--- a/system/Pager/PagerRenderer.php
+++ b/system/Pager/PagerRenderer.php
@@ -25,14 +25,14 @@ use CodeIgniter\HTTP\URI;
 class PagerRenderer
 {
     /**
-     * First page number.
+     * First page number in the set of links to be displayed.
      *
      * @var int
      */
     protected $first;
 
     /**
-     * Last page number.
+     * Last page number in the set of links to be displayed.
      *
      * @var int
      */
@@ -85,8 +85,11 @@ class PagerRenderer
      */
     public function __construct(array $details)
     {
-        $this->first        = 1;
-        $this->last         = $details['pageCount'];
+        // `first` and `last` will be updated by `setSurroundCount()`.
+        // You must call `setSurroundCount()` after instantiation.
+        $this->first = 1;
+        $this->last  = $details['pageCount'];
+
         $this->current      = $details['currentPage'];
         $this->total        = $details['total'];
         $this->uri          = $details['uri'];
@@ -122,8 +125,6 @@ class PagerRenderer
      * page before the current page, but is the page just before the
      * "first" page.
      *
-     * You MUST call hasPrevious() first, or this value may be invalid.
-     *
      * @return string|null
      */
     public function getPrevious()
@@ -162,8 +163,6 @@ class PagerRenderer
      * page after the current page, but is the page that follows the
      * "last" page.
      *
-     * You MUST call hasNext() first, or this value may be invalid.
-     *
      * @return string|null
      */
     public function getNext()
@@ -260,6 +259,8 @@ class PagerRenderer
      * is represented by another array containing of the URI the link
      * should go to, the title (number) of the link, and a boolean
      * value representing whether this link is active or not.
+     *
+     * @return list<array{uri:string, title:int, active:bool}>
      */
     public function links(): array
     {
@@ -381,7 +382,7 @@ class PagerRenderer
     }
 
     /**
-     * Returns the page number of the first page.
+     * Returns the page number of the first page in the set of links to be displayed.
      */
     public function getFirstPageNumber(): int
     {
@@ -397,7 +398,7 @@ class PagerRenderer
     }
 
     /**
-     * Returns the page number of the last page.
+     * Returns the page number of the last page in the set of links to be displayed.
      */
     public function getLastPageNumber(): int
     {
diff --git a/system/Pager/Views/default_simple.php b/system/Pager/Views/default_simple.php
index fc00ce88..df7f7e0e 100644
--- a/system/Pager/Views/default_simple.php
+++ b/system/Pager/Views/default_simple.php
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ $pager->setSurroundCount(0);
 			</a>
 		</li>
 		<li <?= $pager->hasNext() ? '' : 'class="disabled"' ?>>
-			<a href="<?= $pager->getnext() ?? '#' ?>" aria-label="<?= lang('Pager.next') ?>">
+			<a href="<?= $pager->getNext() ?? '#' ?>" aria-label="<?= lang('Pager.next') ?>">
 				<span aria-hidden="true"><?= lang('Pager.older') ?></span>
 			</a>
 		</li>
diff --git a/system/RESTful/ResourceController.php b/system/RESTful/ResourceController.php
index 03ba4d31..6ffb602c 100644
--- a/system/RESTful/ResourceController.php
+++ b/system/RESTful/ResourceController.php
@@ -105,6 +105,7 @@ class ResourceController extends BaseResource
      * Set/change the expected response representation for returned objects
      *
      * @param string $format json/xml
+     * @phpstan-param 'json'|'xml' $format
      *
      * @return void
      */
diff --git a/system/Router/AutoRouter.php b/system/Router/AutoRouter.php
index f7cd02a3..87a5b3ac 100644
--- a/system/Router/AutoRouter.php
+++ b/system/Router/AutoRouter.php
@@ -90,7 +90,7 @@ final class AutoRouter implements AutoRouterInterface
 
         // If we don't have any segments left - use the default controller;
         // If not empty, then the first segment should be the controller
-        if (! empty($segments)) {
+        if ($segments !== []) {
             $this->controller = ucfirst(array_shift($segments));
         }
 
@@ -103,7 +103,7 @@ final class AutoRouter implements AutoRouterInterface
         // Use the method name if it exists.
         // If it doesn't, no biggie - the default method name
         // has already been set.
-        if (! empty($segments)) {
+        if ($segments !== []) {
             $this->method = array_shift($segments) ?: $this->method;
         }
 
@@ -115,7 +115,7 @@ final class AutoRouter implements AutoRouterInterface
         /** @var array $params An array of params to the controller method. */
         $params = [];
 
-        if (! empty($segments)) {
+        if ($segments !== []) {
             $params = $segments;
         }
 
@@ -259,7 +259,7 @@ final class AutoRouter implements AutoRouterInterface
      */
     public function setDirectory(?string $dir = null, bool $append = false, bool $validate = true)
     {
-        if (empty($dir)) {
+        if ($dir === null || $dir === '') {
             $this->directory = null;
 
             return;
@@ -275,7 +275,7 @@ final class AutoRouter implements AutoRouterInterface
             }
         }
 
-        if ($append !== true || empty($this->directory)) {
+        if ($append !== true || ($this->directory === null || $this->directory === '')) {
             $this->directory = trim($dir, '/') . '/';
         } else {
             $this->directory .= trim($dir, '/') . '/';
@@ -290,7 +290,7 @@ final class AutoRouter implements AutoRouterInterface
      */
     public function directory(): string
     {
-        return ! empty($this->directory) ? $this->directory : '';
+        return ($this->directory !== null && $this->directory !== '') ? $this->directory : '';
     }
 
     private function controllerName(): string
diff --git a/system/Router/AutoRouterImproved.php b/system/Router/AutoRouterImproved.php
index 0a26fc12..a86e92f0 100644
--- a/system/Router/AutoRouterImproved.php
+++ b/system/Router/AutoRouterImproved.php
@@ -49,7 +49,7 @@ final class AutoRouterImproved implements AutoRouterInterface
     /**
      * An array of params to the controller method.
      *
-     * @phpstan-var list<string>
+     * @var list<string>
      */
     private array $params = [];
 
@@ -77,7 +77,7 @@ final class AutoRouterImproved implements AutoRouterInterface
     /**
      * The URI segments.
      *
-     * @phpstan-var list<string>
+     * @var list<string>
      */
     private array $segments = [];
 
@@ -286,7 +286,7 @@ final class AutoRouterImproved implements AutoRouterInterface
         }
 
         // The first item may be a method name.
-        /** @phpstan-var list<string> $params */
+        /** @var list<string> $params */
         $params = $this->params;
 
         $methodParam = array_shift($params);
diff --git a/system/Router/DefinedRouteCollector.php b/system/Router/DefinedRouteCollector.php
index f8e245d1..4fdbbb02 100644
--- a/system/Router/DefinedRouteCollector.php
+++ b/system/Router/DefinedRouteCollector.php
@@ -29,7 +29,7 @@ final class DefinedRouteCollector
     }
 
     /**
-     * @phpstan-return Generator<array{method: string, route: string, name: string, handler: string}>
+     * @return Generator<array{method: string, route: string, name: string, handler: string}>
      */
     public function collect(): Generator
     {
diff --git a/system/Router/RouteCollection.php b/system/Router/RouteCollection.php
index b3bb96e9..4407c107 100644
--- a/system/Router/RouteCollection.php
+++ b/system/Router/RouteCollection.php
@@ -560,11 +560,12 @@ class RouteCollection implements RouteCollectionInterface
     /**
      * Returns the raw array of available routes.
      *
-     * @param bool $includeWildcard Whether to include '*' routes.
+     * @param non-empty-string|null $verb
+     * @param bool                  $includeWildcard Whether to include '*' routes.
      */
     public function getRoutes(?string $verb = null, bool $includeWildcard = true): array
     {
-        if (empty($verb)) {
+        if ($verb === null || $verb === '') {
             $verb = $this->getHTTPVerb();
         }
 
@@ -995,7 +996,7 @@ class RouteCollection implements RouteCollectionInterface
      */
     public function match(array $verbs = [], string $from = '', $to = '', ?array $options = null): RouteCollectionInterface
     {
-        if (empty($from) || empty($to)) {
+        if ($from === '' || empty($to)) {
             throw new InvalidArgumentException('You must supply the parameters: from, to.');
         }
 
@@ -1267,8 +1268,7 @@ class RouteCollection implements RouteCollectionInterface
      *
      * @param string $search routeKey
      *
-     * @return array<int, string> filter_name or filter_name:arguments like 'role:admin,manager'
-     * @phpstan-return list<string>
+     * @return list<string> filter_name or filter_name:arguments like 'role:admin,manager'
      */
     public function getFiltersForRoute(string $search, ?string $verb = null): array
     {
@@ -1305,8 +1305,7 @@ class RouteCollection implements RouteCollectionInterface
          * Build our resulting string, inserting the $params in
          * the appropriate places.
          *
-         * @var array<int, string> $patterns
-         * @phpstan-var list<string> $patterns
+         * @var list<string> $patterns
          */
         $patterns = $matches[0];
 
@@ -1357,8 +1356,7 @@ class RouteCollection implements RouteCollectionInterface
          * Build our resulting string, inserting the $params in
          * the appropriate places.
          *
-         * @var array<int, string> $placeholders
-         * @phpstan-var list<string> $placeholders
+         * @var list<string> $placeholders
          */
         $placeholders = $matches[0];
 
@@ -1691,8 +1689,7 @@ class RouteCollection implements RouteCollectionInterface
     /**
      * Load routes options based on verb
      *
-     * @return array<string, array<string, array|int|string>> [routeKey(or from) => [key => value]]
-     * @phpstan-return array<
+     * @return array<
      *     string,
      *     array{
      *         filter?: string|list<string>, namespace?: string, hostname?: string,
@@ -1740,8 +1737,7 @@ class RouteCollection implements RouteCollectionInterface
      *
      * @param string|null $verb HTTP verb. `'*'` returns all controllers in any verb.
      *
-     * @return array<int, string> controller name list
-     * @phpstan-return list<string>
+     * @return list<string> controller name list
      */
     public function getRegisteredControllers(?string $verb = '*'): array
     {
diff --git a/system/Router/Router.php b/system/Router/Router.php
index 0013d7cd..723c292c 100644
--- a/system/Router/Router.php
+++ b/system/Router/Router.php
@@ -589,7 +589,7 @@ class Router implements RouterInterface
      */
     public function setDirectory(?string $dir = null, bool $append = false, bool $validate = true)
     {
-        if (empty($dir)) {
+        if ($dir === null || $dir === '') {
             $this->directory = null;
         }
 
@@ -623,7 +623,7 @@ class Router implements RouterInterface
     protected function setRequest(array $segments = [])
     {
         // If we don't have any segments - use the default controller;
-        if (empty($segments)) {
+        if ($segments === []) {
             return;
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Session/Handlers/MemcachedHandler.php b/system/Session/Handlers/MemcachedHandler.php
index abccfafb..aa0c1cd3 100644
--- a/system/Session/Handlers/MemcachedHandler.php
+++ b/system/Session/Handlers/MemcachedHandler.php
@@ -70,9 +70,7 @@ class MemcachedHandler extends BaseHandler
             $this->keyPrefix .= $this->ipAddress . ':';
         }
 
-        if (! empty($this->keyPrefix)) {
-            ini_set('memcached.sess_prefix', $this->keyPrefix);
-        }
+        ini_set('memcached.sess_prefix', $this->keyPrefix);
     }
 
     /**
@@ -125,7 +123,7 @@ class MemcachedHandler extends BaseHandler
             }
         }
 
-        if (empty($serverList)) {
+        if ($serverList === []) {
             $this->logger->error('Session: Memcached server pool is empty.');
 
             return false;
diff --git a/system/Session/Handlers/RedisHandler.php b/system/Session/Handlers/RedisHandler.php
index 815e3644..b4297929 100644
--- a/system/Session/Handlers/RedisHandler.php
+++ b/system/Session/Handlers/RedisHandler.php
@@ -71,7 +71,7 @@ class RedisHandler extends BaseHandler
         parent::__construct($config, $ipAddress);
 
         // Store Session configurations
-        $this->sessionExpiration = empty($config->expiration)
+        $this->sessionExpiration = ($config->expiration === 0)
             ? (int) ini_get('session.gc_maxlifetime')
             : $config->expiration;
         // Add sessionCookieName for multiple session cookies.
@@ -293,7 +293,10 @@ class RedisHandler extends BaseHandler
         $attempt = 0;
 
         do {
-            if (($ttl = $this->redis->ttl($lockKey)) > 0) {
+            $ttl = $this->redis->ttl($lockKey);
+            assert(is_int($ttl));
+
+            if ($ttl > 0) {
                 sleep(1);
 
                 continue;
diff --git a/system/Session/Session.php b/system/Session/Session.php
index 4e4a0158..875387f2 100644
--- a/system/Session/Session.php
+++ b/system/Session/Session.php
@@ -241,7 +241,7 @@ class Session implements SessionInterface
         $this->startSession();
 
         // Is session ID auto-regeneration configured? (ignoring ajax requests)
-        if ((empty($_SERVER['HTTP_X_REQUESTED_WITH']) || strtolower($_SERVER['HTTP_X_REQUESTED_WITH']) !== 'xmlhttprequest')
+        if ((! isset($_SERVER['HTTP_X_REQUESTED_WITH']) || strtolower($_SERVER['HTTP_X_REQUESTED_WITH']) !== 'xmlhttprequest')
             && ($regenerateTime = $this->config->timeToUpdate) > 0
         ) {
             if (! isset($_SESSION['__ci_last_regenerate'])) {
@@ -299,7 +299,7 @@ class Session implements SessionInterface
             ini_set('session.gc_maxlifetime', (string) $this->config->expiration);
         }
 
-        if (! empty($this->config->savePath)) {
+        if ($this->config->savePath !== '') {
             ini_set('session.save_path', $this->config->savePath);
         }
 
@@ -368,7 +368,7 @@ class Session implements SessionInterface
      */
     protected function initVars()
     {
-        if (empty($_SESSION['__ci_vars'])) {
+        if (! isset($_SESSION['__ci_vars'])) {
             return;
         }
 
@@ -384,7 +384,7 @@ class Session implements SessionInterface
             }
         }
 
-        if (empty($_SESSION['__ci_vars'])) {
+        if ($_SESSION['__ci_vars'] === []) {
             unset($_SESSION['__ci_vars']);
         }
     }
@@ -486,21 +486,21 @@ class Session implements SessionInterface
      *
      * Replaces the legacy method $session->userdata();
      *
-     * @param string|null $key Identifier of the session property to retrieve
+     * @param non-empty-string|null $key Identifier of the session property to retrieve
      *
      * @return array|bool|float|int|object|string|null The property value(s)
      */
     public function get(?string $key = null)
     {
-        if (! empty($key) && (null !== ($value = $_SESSION[$key] ?? null) || null !== ($value = dot_array_search($key, $_SESSION ?? [])))) {
+        if ($key !== null && $key !== '' && (null !== ($value = $_SESSION[$key] ?? null) || null !== ($value = dot_array_search($key, $_SESSION ?? [])))) {
             return $value;
         }
 
-        if (empty($_SESSION)) {
+        if (! isset($_SESSION) || $_SESSION === []) {
             return $key === null ? [] : null;
         }
 
-        if (! empty($key)) {
+        if ($key !== null && $key !== '') {
             return null;
         }
 
@@ -646,7 +646,7 @@ class Session implements SessionInterface
 
         $flashdata = [];
 
-        if (! empty($_SESSION['__ci_vars'])) {
+        if (isset($_SESSION['__ci_vars'])) {
             foreach ($_SESSION['__ci_vars'] as $key => &$value) {
                 if (! is_int($value)) {
                     $flashdata[$key] = $_SESSION[$key];
@@ -706,7 +706,7 @@ class Session implements SessionInterface
      */
     public function unmarkFlashdata($key)
     {
-        if (empty($_SESSION['__ci_vars'])) {
+        if (! isset($_SESSION['__ci_vars'])) {
             return;
         }
 
@@ -720,7 +720,7 @@ class Session implements SessionInterface
             }
         }
 
-        if (empty($_SESSION['__ci_vars'])) {
+        if ($_SESSION['__ci_vars'] === []) {
             unset($_SESSION['__ci_vars']);
         }
     }
@@ -778,7 +778,7 @@ class Session implements SessionInterface
 
         $tempdata = [];
 
-        if (! empty($_SESSION['__ci_vars'])) {
+        if (isset($_SESSION['__ci_vars'])) {
             foreach ($_SESSION['__ci_vars'] as $key => &$value) {
                 if (is_int($value)) {
                     $tempdata[$key] = $_SESSION[$key];
@@ -856,7 +856,7 @@ class Session implements SessionInterface
      */
     public function unmarkTempdata($key)
     {
-        if (empty($_SESSION['__ci_vars'])) {
+        if (! isset($_SESSION['__ci_vars'])) {
             return;
         }
 
@@ -870,7 +870,7 @@ class Session implements SessionInterface
             }
         }
 
-        if (empty($_SESSION['__ci_vars'])) {
+        if ($_SESSION['__ci_vars'] === []) {
             unset($_SESSION['__ci_vars']);
         }
     }
diff --git a/system/Session/SessionInterface.php b/system/Session/SessionInterface.php
index e78736bf..424834c7 100644
--- a/system/Session/SessionInterface.php
+++ b/system/Session/SessionInterface.php
@@ -51,7 +51,7 @@ interface SessionInterface
      *
      * Replaces the legacy method $session->userdata();
      *
-     * @param string $key Identifier of the session property to retrieve
+     * @param non-empty-string|null $key Identifier of the session property to retrieve
      *
      * @return array|bool|float|int|object|string|null The property value(s)
      */
diff --git a/system/Test/CIUnitTestCase.php b/system/Test/CIUnitTestCase.php
index a0c84c48..b27db73f 100644
--- a/system/Test/CIUnitTestCase.php
+++ b/system/Test/CIUnitTestCase.php
@@ -123,7 +123,7 @@ abstract class CIUnitTestCase extends TestCase
 
     /**
      * The namespace(s) to help us find the migration classes.
-     * Empty is equivalent to running `spark migrate --all`.
+     * `null` is equivalent to running `spark migrate --all`.
      * Note that running "all" runs migrations in date order,
      * but specifying namespaces runs them in namespace order (then date)
      *
@@ -135,8 +135,7 @@ abstract class CIUnitTestCase extends TestCase
      * The name of the database group to connect to.
      * If not present, will use the defaultGroup.
      *
-     * @var string
-     * @phpstan-var non-empty-string
+     * @var non-empty-string
      */
     protected $DBGroup = 'tests';
 
diff --git a/system/Test/ControllerTestTrait.php b/system/Test/ControllerTestTrait.php
index 2da65d1a..a99b899e 100644
--- a/system/Test/ControllerTestTrait.php
+++ b/system/Test/ControllerTestTrait.php
@@ -215,7 +215,7 @@ trait ControllerTestTrait
     /**
      * Set controller's config, with method chaining.
      *
-     * @param mixed $appConfig
+     * @param App $appConfig
      *
      * @return $this
      */
@@ -229,7 +229,7 @@ trait ControllerTestTrait
     /**
      * Set controller's request, with method chaining.
      *
-     * @param mixed $request
+     * @param IncomingRequest $request
      *
      * @return $this
      */
@@ -260,7 +260,7 @@ trait ControllerTestTrait
     /**
      * Set controller's logger, with method chaining.
      *
-     * @param mixed $logger
+     * @param LoggerInterface $logger
      *
      * @return $this
      */
diff --git a/system/Test/DOMParser.php b/system/Test/DOMParser.php
index 100b14b7..15654521 100644
--- a/system/Test/DOMParser.php
+++ b/system/Test/DOMParser.php
@@ -189,23 +189,23 @@ class DOMParser
         $path = '';
 
         // By ID
-        if (! empty($selector['id'])) {
-            $path = empty($selector['tag'])
+        if (isset($selector['id'])) {
+            $path = ($selector['tag'] === '')
                 ? "id(\"{$selector['id']}\")"
                 : "//{$selector['tag']}[@id=\"{$selector['id']}\"]";
         }
         // By Class
-        elseif (! empty($selector['class'])) {
-            $path = empty($selector['tag'])
+        elseif (isset($selector['class'])) {
+            $path = ($selector['tag'] === '')
                 ? "//*[@class=\"{$selector['class']}\"]"
                 : "//{$selector['tag']}[@class=\"{$selector['class']}\"]";
         }
         // By tag only
-        elseif (! empty($selector['tag'])) {
+        elseif ($selector['tag'] !== '') {
             $path = "//{$selector['tag']}";
         }
 
-        if (! empty($selector['attr'])) {
+        if (isset($selector['attr'])) {
             foreach ($selector['attr'] as $key => $value) {
                 $path .= "[@{$key}=\"{$value}\"]";
             }
@@ -213,7 +213,7 @@ class DOMParser
 
         // $paths might contain a number of different
         // ready to go xpath portions to tack on.
-        if (! empty($paths) && is_array($paths)) {
+        if ($paths !== [] && is_array($paths)) {
             foreach ($paths as $extra) {
                 $path .= $extra;
             }
@@ -231,7 +231,7 @@ class DOMParser
     /**
      * Look for the a selector  in the passed text.
      *
-     * @return array
+     * @return array{tag: string, id: string|null, class: string|null, attr: array<string, string>|null}
      */
     public function parseSelector(string $selector)
     {
diff --git a/system/Test/DatabaseTestTrait.php b/system/Test/DatabaseTestTrait.php
index d7b8b02d..59dc5f82 100644
--- a/system/Test/DatabaseTestTrait.php
+++ b/system/Test/DatabaseTestTrait.php
@@ -79,7 +79,7 @@ trait DatabaseTestTrait
             $config          = new Migrations();
             $config->enabled = true;
 
-            $this->migrations = Services::migrations($config, $this->db);
+            $this->migrations = Services::migrations($config, $this->db, false);
             $this->migrations->setSilent(false);
         }
 
@@ -120,7 +120,7 @@ trait DatabaseTestTrait
         }
 
         // If no namespace was specified then rollback all
-        if (empty($this->namespace)) {
+        if ($this->namespace === null) {
             $this->migrations->setNamespace(null);
             $this->migrations->regress(0, 'tests');
         }
@@ -146,7 +146,7 @@ trait DatabaseTestTrait
         }
 
         // If no namespace was specified then migrate all
-        if (empty($this->namespace)) {
+        if ($this->namespace === null) {
             $this->migrations->setNamespace(null);
             $this->migrations->latest('tests');
             self::$doneMigration = true;
@@ -182,8 +182,8 @@ trait DatabaseTestTrait
      */
     protected function runSeeds()
     {
-        if (! empty($this->seed)) {
-            if (! empty($this->basePath)) {
+        if ($this->seed !== '') {
+            if ($this->basePath !== '') {
                 $this->seeder->setPath(rtrim($this->basePath, '/') . '/Seeds');
             }
 
diff --git a/system/Test/Fabricator.php b/system/Test/Fabricator.php
index 3a28f281..c247b874 100644
--- a/system/Test/Fabricator.php
+++ b/system/Test/Fabricator.php
@@ -128,7 +128,7 @@ class Fabricator
 
         // Determine eligible date fields
         foreach (['createdField', 'updatedField', 'deletedField'] as $field) {
-            if (! empty($this->model->{$field})) {
+            if (isset($this->model->{$field})) {
                 $this->dateFields[] = $this->model->{$field};
             }
         }
@@ -152,7 +152,7 @@ class Fabricator
      */
     public static function getCount(string $table): int
     {
-        return empty(self::$tableCounts[$table]) ? 0 : self::$tableCounts[$table];
+        return ! isset(self::$tableCounts[$table]) ? 0 : self::$tableCounts[$table];
     }
 
     /**
@@ -282,7 +282,7 @@ class Fabricator
     {
         $this->formatters = [];
 
-        if (! empty($this->model->allowedFields)) {
+        if (isset($this->model->allowedFields)) {
             foreach ($this->model->allowedFields as $field) {
                 $this->formatters[$field] = $this->guessFormatter($field);
             }
@@ -513,12 +513,12 @@ class Fabricator
         // Determine which fields we will need
         $fields = [];
 
-        if (! empty($this->model->useTimestamps)) {
+        if ($this->model->useTimestamps) {
             $fields[$this->model->createdField] = $datetime;
             $fields[$this->model->updatedField] = $datetime;
         }
 
-        if (! empty($this->model->useSoftDeletes)) {
+        if ($this->model->useSoftDeletes) {
             $fields[$this->model->deletedField] = null;
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Test/FeatureTestCase.php b/system/Test/FeatureTestCase.php
index c94cf926..fff624a8 100644
--- a/system/Test/FeatureTestCase.php
+++ b/system/Test/FeatureTestCase.php
@@ -186,7 +186,7 @@ class FeatureTestCase extends CIUnitTestCase
             ->run($routes, true);
 
         $output = \ob_get_contents();
-        if (empty($response->getBody()) && ! empty($output)) {
+        if (($response->getBody() === null) && ! ($output === '' || $output === false)) {
             $response->setBody($output);
         }
 
@@ -335,7 +335,7 @@ class FeatureTestCase extends CIUnitTestCase
     {
         // $params should set the query vars if present,
         // otherwise set it from the URL.
-        $get = ! empty($params) && $method === 'get'
+        $get = ($params !== null && $params !== [] && $method === 'get')
             ? $params
             : $this->getPrivateProperty($request->getUri(), 'query');
 
@@ -371,16 +371,19 @@ class FeatureTestCase extends CIUnitTestCase
         }
 
         if (isset($this->bodyFormat) && $this->bodyFormat !== '') {
-            if (empty($params)) {
+            if ($params === null || $params === []) {
                 $params = $request->fetchGlobal('request');
             }
+
             $formatMime = '';
+
             if ($this->bodyFormat === 'json') {
                 $formatMime = 'application/json';
             } elseif ($this->bodyFormat === 'xml') {
                 $formatMime = 'application/xml';
             }
-            if (! empty($formatMime) && ! empty($params)) {
+
+            if ($formatMime !== '' && ! ($params === null || $params === [])) {
                 $formatted = Services::format()->getFormatter($formatMime)->format($params);
                 $request->setBody($formatted);
                 $request->setHeader('Content-Type', $formatMime);
diff --git a/system/Test/FeatureTestTrait.php b/system/Test/FeatureTestTrait.php
index 6acef638..565e4e89 100644
--- a/system/Test/FeatureTestTrait.php
+++ b/system/Test/FeatureTestTrait.php
@@ -326,7 +326,8 @@ trait FeatureTestTrait
      *
      * Always populate the GET vars based on the URI.
      *
-     * @param string $method HTTP verb
+     * @param string               $method HTTP verb
+     * @param non-empty-array|null $params
      *
      * @return Request
      *
@@ -336,7 +337,7 @@ trait FeatureTestTrait
     {
         // $params should set the query vars if present,
         // otherwise set it from the URL.
-        $get = (! empty($params) && $method === 'get')
+        $get = ($params !== null && $params !== [] && $method === 'get')
             ? $params
             : $this->getPrivateProperty($request->getUri(), 'query');
 
diff --git a/system/Test/FilterTestTrait.php b/system/Test/FilterTestTrait.php
index 084a6cd0..523717e5 100644
--- a/system/Test/FilterTestTrait.php
+++ b/system/Test/FilterTestTrait.php
@@ -125,6 +125,10 @@ trait FilterTestTrait
             throw new InvalidArgumentException('Invalid filter position passed: ' . $position);
         }
 
+        if ($filter instanceof FilterInterface) {
+            $filterInstances = [$filter];
+        }
+
         if (is_string($filter)) {
             // Check for an alias (no namespace)
             if (strpos($filter, '\\') === false) {
@@ -132,28 +136,31 @@ trait FilterTestTrait
                     throw new RuntimeException("No filter found with alias '{$filter}'");
                 }
 
-                $filterClasses = $this->filtersConfig->aliases[$filter];
+                $filterClasses = (array) $this->filtersConfig->aliases[$filter];
+            } else {
+                // FQCN
+                $filterClasses = [$filter];
             }
 
-            $filterClasses = (array) $filterClasses;
-        }
+            $filterInstances = [];
 
-        foreach ($filterClasses as $class) {
-            // Get an instance
-            $filter = new $class();
+            foreach ($filterClasses as $class) {
+                // Get an instance
+                $filter = new $class();
 
-            if (! $filter instanceof FilterInterface) {
-                throw FilterException::forIncorrectInterface(get_class($filter));
+                if (! $filter instanceof FilterInterface) {
+                    throw FilterException::forIncorrectInterface(get_class($filter));
+                }
+
+                $filterInstances[] = $filter;
             }
         }
 
         $request = clone $this->request;
 
         if ($position === 'before') {
-            return static function (?array $params = null) use ($filterClasses, $request) {
-                foreach ($filterClasses as $class) {
-                    $filter = new $class();
-
+            return static function (?array $params = null) use ($filterInstances, $request) {
+                foreach ($filterInstances as $filter) {
                     $result = $filter->before($request, $params);
 
                     // @TODO The following logic is in Filters class.
@@ -177,10 +184,8 @@ trait FilterTestTrait
 
         $response = clone $this->response;
 
-        return static function (?array $params = null) use ($filterClasses, $request, $response) {
-            foreach ($filterClasses as $class) {
-                $filter = new $class();
-
+        return static function (?array $params = null) use ($filterInstances, $request, $response) {
+            foreach ($filterInstances as $filter) {
                 $result = $filter->after($request, $response, $params);
 
                 // @TODO The following logic is in Filters class.
diff --git a/system/Test/IniTestTrait.php b/system/Test/IniTestTrait.php
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..5820cfc1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/system/Test/IniTestTrait.php
@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+<?php
+
+/**
+ * This file is part of CodeIgniter 4 framework.
+ *
+ * (c) CodeIgniter Foundation <admin@codeigniter.com>
+ *
+ * For the full copyright and license information, please view
+ * the LICENSE file that was distributed with this source code.
+ */
+
+namespace CodeIgniter\Test;
+
+trait IniTestTrait
+{
+    private array $iniSettings = [];
+
+    private function backupIniValues(array $keys): void
+    {
+        foreach ($keys as $key) {
+            $this->iniSettings[$key] = ini_get($key);
+        }
+    }
+
+    private function restoreIniValues(): void
+    {
+        foreach ($this->iniSettings as $key => $value) {
+            ini_set($key, $value);
+        }
+
+        $this->iniSettings = [];
+    }
+}
diff --git a/system/Test/Mock/MockCache.php b/system/Test/Mock/MockCache.php
index 73a75580..082807b5 100644
--- a/system/Test/Mock/MockCache.php
+++ b/system/Test/Mock/MockCache.php
@@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ class MockCache extends BaseHandler implements CacheInterface
     /**
      * Mock cache storage.
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var array<string, mixed>
      */
     protected $cache = [];
 
@@ -155,7 +155,7 @@ class MockCache extends BaseHandler implements CacheInterface
         $key  = static::validateKey($key, $this->prefix);
         $data = $this->cache[$key] ?: null;
 
-        if (empty($data)) {
+        if ($data === null) {
             $data = 0;
         } elseif (! is_int($data)) {
             return false;
@@ -175,7 +175,7 @@ class MockCache extends BaseHandler implements CacheInterface
 
         $data = $this->cache[$key] ?: null;
 
-        if (empty($data)) {
+        if ($data === null) {
             $data = 0;
         } elseif (! is_int($data)) {
             return false;
@@ -281,9 +281,9 @@ class MockCache extends BaseHandler implements CacheInterface
     {
         $item = $this->get($key);
 
-        // Let assertHas handle throwing the error for consistency
+        // Let assertHas() handle throwing the error for consistency
         // if the key is not found
-        if (empty($item)) {
+        if ($item === null) {
             $this->assertHas($key);
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Test/Mock/MockConnection.php b/system/Test/Mock/MockConnection.php
index ea4ebac9..2e9ebe3b 100644
--- a/system/Test/Mock/MockConnection.php
+++ b/system/Test/Mock/MockConnection.php
@@ -62,7 +62,7 @@ class MockConnection extends BaseConnection
 
         $query->setQuery($sql, $binds, $setEscapeFlags);
 
-        if (! empty($this->swapPre) && ! empty($this->DBPrefix)) {
+        if ($this->swapPre !== '' && $this->DBPrefix !== '') {
             $query->swapPrefix($this->DBPrefix, $this->swapPre);
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Test/Mock/MockResponse.php b/system/Test/Mock/MockResponse.php
old mode 100644
new mode 100755
diff --git a/system/Test/TestResponse.php b/system/Test/TestResponse.php
index 956b3218..215942d5 100644
--- a/system/Test/TestResponse.php
+++ b/system/Test/TestResponse.php
@@ -136,8 +136,10 @@ class TestResponse extends TestCase
             return false;
         }
 
+        $body = (string) $this->response->getBody();
+
         // Empty bodies are not considered valid, unless in redirects
-        return ! ($status < 300 && empty($this->response->getBody()));
+        return ! ($status < 300 && $body === '');
     }
 
     /**
diff --git a/system/Test/bootstrap.php b/system/Test/bootstrap.php
index 3145725a..3e2d54fd 100644
--- a/system/Test/bootstrap.php
+++ b/system/Test/bootstrap.php
@@ -46,7 +46,7 @@ defined('CIPATH')        || define('CIPATH', realpath(SYSTEMPATH . '../') . DIRE
 defined('FCPATH')        || define('FCPATH', realpath(PUBLICPATH) . DIRECTORY_SEPARATOR);
 defined('TESTPATH')      || define('TESTPATH', realpath(HOMEPATH . 'tests/') . DIRECTORY_SEPARATOR);
 defined('SUPPORTPATH')   || define('SUPPORTPATH', realpath(TESTPATH . '_support/') . DIRECTORY_SEPARATOR);
-defined('COMPOSER_PATH') || define('COMPOSER_PATH', realpath(HOMEPATH . 'vendor/autoload.php'));
+defined('COMPOSER_PATH') || define('COMPOSER_PATH', (string) realpath(HOMEPATH . 'vendor/autoload.php'));
 defined('VENDORPATH')    || define('VENDORPATH', realpath(HOMEPATH . 'vendor') . DIRECTORY_SEPARATOR);
 
 // Load Common.php from App then System
@@ -75,6 +75,7 @@ require_once APPPATH . 'Config/Services.php';
 
 // Initialize and register the loader with the SPL autoloader stack.
 Services::autoloader()->initialize(new Autoload(), new Modules())->register();
+Services::autoloader()->loadHelpers();
 
 // Now load Composer's if it's available
 if (is_file(COMPOSER_PATH)) {
diff --git a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/CallFinder.php b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/CallFinder.php
index e36e91ea..f85b1ae0 100644
--- a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/CallFinder.php
+++ b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/CallFinder.php
@@ -138,7 +138,7 @@ class CallFinder
     /**
      * @psalm-param callable-array|callable-string $function
      *
-     * @param mixed $function
+     * @psalm-return list<array{parameters: list, modifiers: list<PhpToken>}>
      *
      * @return array List of matching calls on the relevant line
      */
@@ -187,6 +187,7 @@ class CallFinder
             $identifier[T_NAME_RELATIVE] = true;
         }
 
+        /** @psalm-var list<PhpToken> */
         $tokens = \token_get_all($source);
         $cursor = 1;
         $function_calls = [];
@@ -449,8 +450,6 @@ class CallFinder
      * for `$token[0]` then "..." will incorrectly match the "." operator.
      *
      * @psalm-param PhpToken $token The token to check
-     *
-     * @param mixed $token
      */
     private static function tokenIsOperator($token): bool
     {
diff --git a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Kint.php b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Kint.php
index 47e34abe..418c1f3f 100644
--- a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Kint.php
+++ b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Kint.php
@@ -133,7 +133,7 @@ class Kint implements FacadeInterface
     public static $aliases = [
         ['Kint\\Kint', 'dump'],
         ['Kint\\Kint', 'trace'],
-        ['Kint\\Kint', 'dumpArray'],
+        ['Kint\\Kint', 'dumpAll'],
     ];
 
     /**
@@ -537,7 +537,7 @@ class Kint implements FacadeInterface
      *
      * Functionally equivalent to Kint::dump(1) or Kint::dump(debug_backtrace())
      *
-     * @param mixed ...$args
+     * @psalm-param array ...$args
      *
      * @return int|string
      */
@@ -599,6 +599,7 @@ class Kint implements FacadeInterface
         $match = '/';
 
         foreach (static::$app_root_dirs as $path => $alias) {
+            /** @psalm-var string $path */
             if (empty($path)) {
                 continue;
             }
diff --git a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Parser/BlacklistPlugin.php b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Parser/BlacklistPlugin.php
index 90ec3c22..fa54a3a6 100644
--- a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Parser/BlacklistPlugin.php
+++ b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Parser/BlacklistPlugin.php
@@ -29,6 +29,7 @@ namespace Kint\Parser;
 
 use Kint\Zval\InstanceValue;
 use Kint\Zval\Value;
+use Psr\Container\ContainerInterface;
 
 class BlacklistPlugin extends AbstractPlugin
 {
@@ -44,7 +45,7 @@ class BlacklistPlugin extends AbstractPlugin
      *
      * @var array
      */
-    public static $shallow_blacklist = ['Psr\\Container\\ContainerInterface'];
+    public static $shallow_blacklist = [ContainerInterface::class];
 
     public function getTypes(): array
     {
diff --git a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Parser/ClosurePlugin.php b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Parser/ClosurePlugin.php
index 8b199781..84ea5826 100644
--- a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Parser/ClosurePlugin.php
+++ b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Parser/ClosurePlugin.php
@@ -67,7 +67,7 @@ class ClosurePlugin extends AbstractPlugin
         }
 
         $p = new Representation('Parameters');
-        $p->contents = &$o->parameters;
+        $p->contents = $o->parameters;
         $o->addRepresentation($p, 0);
 
         $statics = [];
diff --git a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Parser/Parser.php b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Parser/Parser.php
index 50642b90..f044a9de 100644
--- a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Parser/Parser.php
+++ b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Parser/Parser.php
@@ -72,7 +72,7 @@ class Parser
      * @param int     $depth_limit Maximum depth to parse data
      * @param ?string $caller      Caller class name
      */
-    public function __construct(int $depth_limit = 0, ?string $caller = null)
+    public function __construct(int $depth_limit = 0, string $caller = null)
     {
         $this->marker = "kint\0".\random_bytes(16);
 
@@ -83,7 +83,7 @@ class Parser
     /**
      * Set the caller class.
      */
-    public function setCallerClass(?string $caller = null): void
+    public function setCallerClass(string $caller = null): void
     {
         $this->noRecurseCall();
 
diff --git a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Parser/PluginInterface.php b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Parser/PluginInterface.php
index ff169fd1..3afb1a77 100644
--- a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Parser/PluginInterface.php
+++ b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Parser/PluginInterface.php
@@ -38,7 +38,7 @@ interface PluginInterface
     public function getTriggers(): int;
 
     /**
-     * @param mixed &$var
+     * @psalm-param mixed &$var
      */
     public function parse(&$var, Value &$o, int $trigger): void;
 }
diff --git a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Parser/TablePlugin.php b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Parser/TablePlugin.php
index 8d7e155c..5afe7598 100644
--- a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Parser/TablePlugin.php
+++ b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Parser/TablePlugin.php
@@ -30,6 +30,12 @@ namespace Kint\Parser;
 use Kint\Zval\Representation\Representation;
 use Kint\Zval\Value;
 
+// Note: Interaction with ArrayLimitPlugin:
+// Any array limited children will be shown in tables identically to
+// non-array-limited children since the table only shows that it is an array
+// and it's size anyway. Because ArrayLimitPlugin halts the parse on finding
+// a limit all other plugins including this one are stopped, so you cannot get
+// a tabular representation of an array that is longer than the limit.
 class TablePlugin extends AbstractPlugin
 {
     public function getTypes(): array
diff --git a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Renderer/RichRenderer.php b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Renderer/RichRenderer.php
index f206e560..b3d86ea1 100644
--- a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Renderer/RichRenderer.php
+++ b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Renderer/RichRenderer.php
@@ -140,6 +140,13 @@ class RichRenderer extends AbstractRenderer
      */
     public static $sort = self::SORT_NONE;
 
+    /**
+     * Timestamp to print in footer in date() format.
+     *
+     * @var ?string
+     */
+    public static $timestamp = null;
+
     public static $needs_pre_render = true;
     public static $needs_folder_render = true;
 
@@ -465,29 +472,7 @@ class RichRenderer extends AbstractRenderer
             $output .= '<nav></nav>';
         }
 
-        if (isset($this->call_info['callee']['file'])) {
-            $output .= 'Called from '.$this->ideLink(
-                $this->call_info['callee']['file'],
-                $this->call_info['callee']['line']
-            );
-        }
-
-        if (
-            isset($this->call_info['callee']['function']) &&
-            (
-                !empty($this->call_info['callee']['class']) ||
-                !\in_array(
-                    $this->call_info['callee']['function'],
-                    ['include', 'include_once', 'require', 'require_once'],
-                    true
-                )
-            )
-        ) {
-            $output .= ' [';
-            $output .= $this->call_info['callee']['class'] ?? '';
-            $output .= $this->call_info['callee']['type'] ?? '';
-            $output .= $this->call_info['callee']['function'].'()]';
-        }
+        $output .= $this->calledFrom();
 
         if (!empty($this->call_info['trace']) && \count($this->call_info['trace']) > 1) {
             $output .= '<ol>';
@@ -497,8 +482,8 @@ class RichRenderer extends AbstractRenderer
                 }
 
                 $output .= '<li>'.$this->ideLink($step['file'], $step['line']); // closing tag not required
-                if (isset($step['function'])
-                    && !\in_array($step['function'], ['include', 'include_once', 'require', 'require_once'], true)
+                if (isset($step['function']) &&
+                    !\in_array($step['function'], ['include', 'include_once', 'require', 'require_once'], true)
                 ) {
                     $output .= ' [';
                     $output .= $step['class'] ?? '';
@@ -516,8 +501,6 @@ class RichRenderer extends AbstractRenderer
 
     /**
      * @psalm-param Encoding $encoding
-     *
-     * @param mixed $encoding
      */
     public function escape(string $string, $encoding = false): string
     {
@@ -559,6 +542,45 @@ class RichRenderer extends AbstractRenderer
         return '<a '.$class.'href="'.$this->escape($ideLink).'">'.$path.'</a>';
     }
 
+    protected function calledFrom(): string
+    {
+        $output = '';
+
+        if (isset($this->call_info['callee']['file'])) {
+            $output .= ' '.$this->ideLink(
+                $this->call_info['callee']['file'],
+                $this->call_info['callee']['line']
+            );
+        }
+
+        if (
+            isset($this->call_info['callee']['function']) &&
+            (
+                !empty($this->call_info['callee']['class']) ||
+                !\in_array(
+                    $this->call_info['callee']['function'],
+                    ['include', 'include_once', 'require', 'require_once'],
+                    true
+                )
+            )
+        ) {
+            $output .= ' [';
+            $output .= $this->call_info['callee']['class'] ?? '';
+            $output .= $this->call_info['callee']['type'] ?? '';
+            $output .= $this->call_info['callee']['function'].'()]';
+        }
+
+        if ('' !== $output) {
+            $output = 'Called from'.$output;
+        }
+
+        if (null !== self::$timestamp) {
+            $output .= ' '.\date(self::$timestamp);
+        }
+
+        return $output;
+    }
+
     protected function renderTab(Value $o, Representation $rep): string
     {
         if (($plugin = $this->getPlugin(self::$tab_plugins, $rep->hints)) && $plugin instanceof TabPluginInterface) {
diff --git a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Renderer/Text/AbstractPlugin.php b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Renderer/Text/AbstractPlugin.php
index 4d3c7e2a..16feccaa 100644
--- a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Renderer/Text/AbstractPlugin.php
+++ b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Renderer/Text/AbstractPlugin.php
@@ -42,7 +42,7 @@ abstract class AbstractPlugin implements PluginInterface
         $this->renderer = $r;
     }
 
-    public function renderLockedHeader(Value $o, ?string $content = null): string
+    public function renderLockedHeader(Value $o, string $content = null): string
     {
         $out = '';
 
diff --git a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Renderer/TextRenderer.php b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Renderer/TextRenderer.php
index 833320a6..2538e4da 100644
--- a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Renderer/TextRenderer.php
+++ b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Renderer/TextRenderer.php
@@ -108,6 +108,13 @@ class TextRenderer extends AbstractRenderer
      */
     public static $sort = self::SORT_NONE;
 
+    /**
+     * Timestamp to print in footer in date() format.
+     *
+     * @var ?string
+     */
+    public static $timestamp = null;
+
     public $header_width = 80;
     public $indent_width = 4;
 
@@ -300,7 +307,7 @@ class TextRenderer extends AbstractRenderer
     {
         $return = [];
 
-        foreach ($plugins as $index => $plugin) {
+        foreach ($plugins as $plugin) {
             foreach (self::$parser_plugin_whitelist as $whitelist) {
                 if ($plugin instanceof $whitelist) {
                     $return[] = $plugin;
@@ -319,8 +326,6 @@ class TextRenderer extends AbstractRenderer
 
     /**
      * @psalm-param Encoding $encoding
-     *
-     * @param mixed $encoding
      */
     public function escape(string $string, $encoding = false): string
     {
@@ -355,6 +360,13 @@ class TextRenderer extends AbstractRenderer
             $output .= $this->call_info['callee']['function'].'()]';
         }
 
+        if (null !== self::$timestamp) {
+            if (\strlen($output)) {
+                $output .= ' ';
+            }
+            $output .= \date(self::$timestamp);
+        }
+
         return $output;
     }
 
diff --git a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Utils.php b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Utils.php
index 78b5a1e8..54570958 100644
--- a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Utils.php
+++ b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Utils.php
@@ -255,8 +255,6 @@ final class Utils
 
     /**
      * @psalm-param Encoding $encoding
-     *
-     * @param mixed $encoding
      */
     public static function truncateString(string $input, int $length = PHP_INT_MAX, string $end = '...', $encoding = false): string
     {
diff --git a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Zval/BlobValue.php b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Zval/BlobValue.php
index ff5a6a24..5e9f129d 100644
--- a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Zval/BlobValue.php
+++ b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Zval/BlobValue.php
@@ -122,8 +122,6 @@ class BlobValue extends Value
 
     /**
      * @psalm-param Encoding $encoding
-     *
-     * @param mixed $encoding
      */
     public static function strlen(string $string, $encoding = false): int
     {
@@ -142,10 +140,8 @@ class BlobValue extends Value
 
     /**
      * @psalm-param Encoding $encoding
-     *
-     * @param mixed $encoding
      */
-    public static function substr(string $string, int $start, ?int $length = null, $encoding = false): string
+    public static function substr(string $string, int $start, int $length = null, $encoding = false): string
     {
         if (\function_exists('mb_substr')) {
             if (false === $encoding) {
diff --git a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Zval/Representation/ColorRepresentation.php b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Zval/Representation/ColorRepresentation.php
index 806a8006..88536034 100644
--- a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Zval/Representation/ColorRepresentation.php
+++ b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Zval/Representation/ColorRepresentation.php
@@ -211,7 +211,7 @@ class ColorRepresentation extends Representation
         $this->setValues($value);
     }
 
-    public function getColor(?int $variant = null): ?string
+    public function getColor(int $variant = null): ?string
     {
         if (!$variant) {
             $variant = $this->variant;
@@ -275,7 +275,7 @@ class ColorRepresentation extends Representation
         return null;
     }
 
-    public function hasAlpha(?int $variant = null): bool
+    public function hasAlpha(int $variant = null): bool
     {
         if (null === $variant) {
             $variant = $this->variant;
diff --git a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Zval/Representation/MicrotimeRepresentation.php b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Zval/Representation/MicrotimeRepresentation.php
index d25539b1..027b0ce2 100644
--- a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Zval/Representation/MicrotimeRepresentation.php
+++ b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Zval/Representation/MicrotimeRepresentation.php
@@ -44,7 +44,7 @@ class MicrotimeRepresentation extends Representation
     public $mem_peak_real = 0;
     public $hints = ['microtime'];
 
-    public function __construct(int $seconds, int $microseconds, int $group, ?float $lap = null, ?float $total = null, int $i = 0)
+    public function __construct(int $seconds, int $microseconds, int $group, float $lap = null, float $total = null, int $i = 0)
     {
         parent::__construct('Microtime');
 
diff --git a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Zval/Representation/Representation.php b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Zval/Representation/Representation.php
index c4680c3d..76d695b8 100644
--- a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Zval/Representation/Representation.php
+++ b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Zval/Representation/Representation.php
@@ -36,7 +36,7 @@ class Representation
 
     protected $name;
 
-    public function __construct(string $label, ?string $name = null)
+    public function __construct(string $label, string $name = null)
     {
         $this->label = $label;
 
diff --git a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Zval/Representation/SourceRepresentation.php b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Zval/Representation/SourceRepresentation.php
index d05bf088..2fefc582 100644
--- a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Zval/Representation/SourceRepresentation.php
+++ b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Zval/Representation/SourceRepresentation.php
@@ -57,7 +57,7 @@ class SourceRepresentation extends Representation
      * @param int      $start_line The first line to display (1 based)
      * @param null|int $length     Amount of lines to show
      */
-    public static function getSource(string $filename, int $start_line = 1, ?int $length = null): ?array
+    public static function getSource(string $filename, int $start_line = 1, int $length = null): ?array
     {
         if (!$filename || !\file_exists($filename) || !\is_readable($filename)) {
             return null;
diff --git a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Zval/Value.php b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Zval/Value.php
index facb6cd8..01a206d4 100644
--- a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Zval/Value.php
+++ b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/Zval/Value.php
@@ -53,8 +53,8 @@ class Value
     public $reference = false;
     public $depth = 0;
     public $size;
-    public $value;
     public $hints = [];
+    public $value;
 
     protected $representations = [];
 
@@ -62,7 +62,7 @@ class Value
     {
     }
 
-    public function addRepresentation(Representation $rep, ?int $pos = null): bool
+    public function addRepresentation(Representation $rep, int $pos = null): bool
     {
         if (isset($this->representations[$rep->getName()])) {
             return false;
@@ -81,7 +81,7 @@ class Value
         return true;
     }
 
-    public function replaceRepresentation(Representation $rep, ?int $pos = null): void
+    public function replaceRepresentation(Representation $rep, int $pos = null): void
     {
         if (null === $pos) {
             $this->representations[$rep->getName()] = $rep;
@@ -234,7 +234,7 @@ class Value
     /**
      * Creates a new basic object with a name and access path.
      */
-    public static function blank(?string $name = null, ?string $access_path = null): self
+    public static function blank(string $name = null, string $access_path = null): self
     {
         $o = new self();
         $o->name = $name;
diff --git a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/init.php b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/init.php
index 7605415b..039489ab 100644
--- a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/init.php
+++ b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/init.php
@@ -45,6 +45,7 @@ if (\version_compare(PHP_VERSION, '7.1') < 0) {
 \define('KINT_PHP81', \version_compare(PHP_VERSION, '8.1') >= 0);
 \define('KINT_PHP82', \version_compare(PHP_VERSION, '8.2') >= 0);
 \define('KINT_PHP83', \version_compare(PHP_VERSION, '8.3') >= 0);
+\define('KINT_PHP84', \version_compare(PHP_VERSION, '8.4') >= 0);
 
 // Dynamic default settings
 if (false !== \ini_get('xdebug.file_link_format')) {
diff --git a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/init_helpers.php b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/init_helpers.php
index 561425b2..b4d5f4d9 100644
--- a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/init_helpers.php
+++ b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/init_helpers.php
@@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ if (!\function_exists('d')) {
     /**
      * Alias of Kint::dump().
      *
-     * @param mixed ...$args
+     * @psalm-param mixed ...$args
      *
      * @return int|string
      */
@@ -53,7 +53,7 @@ if (!\function_exists('s')) {
      *
      * If run in CLI colors are disabled
      *
-     * @param mixed ...$args
+     * @psalm-param mixed ...$args
      *
      * @return int|string
      */
diff --git a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/resources/compiled/aante-dark.css b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/resources/compiled/aante-dark.css
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..6aa8b702
--- /dev/null
+++ b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/resources/compiled/aante-dark.css
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+.kint-rich{font-size:13px;overflow-x:auto;white-space:nowrap;background:rgba(0,0,0,.9)}.kint-rich.kint-folder{position:fixed;bottom:0;left:0;right:0;z-index:999999;width:100%;margin:0;display:block}.kint-rich.kint-folder dd.kint-foldout{max-height:calc(100vh - 100px);padding-right:8px;overflow-y:scroll;display:none}.kint-rich.kint-folder dd.kint-foldout.kint-show{display:block}.kint-rich::selection,.kint-rich::-moz-selection,.kint-rich::-webkit-selection{background:#555;color:#e2e1e1}.kint-rich .kint-focused{box-shadow:0 0 3px 2px aqua}.kint-rich,.kint-rich::before,.kint-rich::after,.kint-rich *,.kint-rich *::before,.kint-rich *::after{box-sizing:border-box;border-radius:0;color:#e2e1e1;float:none !important;font-family:Consolas,Menlo,Monaco,Lucida Console,Liberation Mono,DejaVu Sans Mono,Bitstream Vera Sans Mono,Courier New,monospace,serif;line-height:15px;margin:0;padding:0;text-align:left}.kint-rich{margin:8px 0}.kint-rich dt,.kint-rich dl{width:auto}.kint-rich dt,.kint-rich div.access-path{background:#070707;border:1px solid #282828;color:#e2e1e1;display:block;font-weight:bold;list-style:none outside none;overflow:auto;padding:4px}.kint-rich dt:hover,.kint-rich div.access-path:hover{border-color:#555}.kint-rich>dl dl{padding:0 0 0 12px}.kint-rich dt.kint-parent>nav,.kint-rich>footer>nav{background:url("data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyB4bWxucz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMjAwMC9zdmciIHZpZXdCb3g9IjAgMCAzMCAxNTAiPjxwYXRoIGQ9Ik02IDdoMThsLTkgMTV6bTAgMzBoMThsLTkgMTV6bTAgNDVoMThsLTktMTV6bTAgMzBoMThsLTktMTV6bTAgMTJsMTggMThtLTE4IDBsMTgtMTgiIGZpbGw9IiNBQUEiLz48cGF0aCBkPSJNNiAxMjZsMTggMThtLTE4IDBsMTgtMTgiIHN0cm9rZS13aWR0aD0iMiIgc3Ryb2tlPSIjQUFBIi8+PC9zdmc+") no-repeat scroll 0 0/15px 75px rgba(0,0,0,0);cursor:pointer;display:inline-block;height:15px;width:15px;margin-right:3px;vertical-align:middle}.kint-rich dt.kint-parent:hover>nav,.kint-rich>footer>nav:hover{background-position:0 25%}.kint-rich dt.kint-parent.kint-show>nav,.kint-rich>footer.kint-show>nav{background-position:0 50%}.kint-rich dt.kint-parent.kint-show:hover>nav,.kint-rich>footer.kint-show>nav:hover{background-position:0 75%}.kint-rich dt.kint-parent.kint-locked>nav{background-position:0 100%}.kint-rich dt.kint-parent+dd{display:none;border-left:1px dashed #282828}.kint-rich dt.kint-parent.kint-show+dd{display:block}.kint-rich var,.kint-rich var a{color:#f90;font-style:normal}.kint-rich dt:hover var,.kint-rich dt:hover var a{color:aqua}.kint-rich dfn{font-style:normal;font-family:monospace;color:#e2e1e1}.kint-rich pre{color:#e2e1e1;margin:0 0 0 12px;padding:5px;overflow-y:hidden;border-top:0;border:1px solid #282828;background:#070707;display:block;word-break:normal}.kint-rich .kint-popup-trigger,.kint-rich .kint-access-path-trigger,.kint-rich .kint-search-trigger{background:rgba(226,225,225,.8);border-radius:3px;height:16px;font-size:16px;margin-left:5px;font-weight:bold;width:16px;text-align:center;float:right !important;cursor:pointer;color:#070707;position:relative;overflow:hidden;line-height:17.6px}.kint-rich .kint-popup-trigger:hover,.kint-rich .kint-access-path-trigger:hover,.kint-rich .kint-search-trigger:hover{color:#e2e1e1;background:#070707}.kint-rich dt.kint-parent>.kint-popup-trigger{line-height:19.2px}.kint-rich .kint-search-trigger{font-size:20px}.kint-rich input.kint-search{display:none;border:1px solid #282828;border-top-width:0;border-bottom-width:0;padding:4px;float:right !important;margin:-4px 0;color:#e2e1e1;background:#070707;height:24px;width:160px;position:relative;z-index:100}.kint-rich input.kint-search.kint-show{display:block}.kint-rich .kint-search-root ul.kint-tabs>li:not(.kint-search-match){background:#070707;opacity:.5}.kint-rich .kint-search-root dl:not(.kint-search-match){opacity:.5}.kint-rich .kint-search-root dl:not(.kint-search-match)>dt{background:#070707}.kint-rich .kint-search-root dl:not(.kint-search-match) dl,.kint-rich .kint-search-root dl:not(.kint-search-match) ul.kint-tabs>li:not(.kint-search-match){opacity:1}.kint-rich div.access-path{background:#070707;display:none;margin-top:5px;padding:4px;white-space:pre}.kint-rich div.access-path.kint-show{display:block}.kint-rich footer{padding:0 3px 3px;font-size:9px;background:rgba(0,0,0,0)}.kint-rich footer>.kint-popup-trigger{background:rgba(0,0,0,0);color:#e2e1e1}.kint-rich footer nav{height:10px;width:10px;background-size:10px 50px}.kint-rich footer>ol{display:none;margin-left:32px}.kint-rich footer.kint-show>ol{display:block}.kint-rich a{color:#e2e1e1;text-shadow:none;text-decoration:underline}.kint-rich a:hover{color:#e2e1e1;border-bottom:1px dotted #e2e1e1}.kint-rich ul{list-style:none;padding-left:12px}.kint-rich ul:not(.kint-tabs) li{border-left:1px dashed #282828}.kint-rich ul:not(.kint-tabs) li>dl{border-left:none}.kint-rich ul.kint-tabs{margin:0 0 0 12px;padding-left:0;background:#070707;border:1px solid #282828;border-top:0}.kint-rich ul.kint-tabs>li{background:#070707;border:1px solid #282828;cursor:pointer;display:inline-block;height:24px;margin:2px;padding:0 12px;vertical-align:top}.kint-rich ul.kint-tabs>li:hover,.kint-rich ul.kint-tabs>li.kint-active-tab:hover{border-color:#555;color:aqua}.kint-rich ul.kint-tabs>li.kint-active-tab{background:#070707;border-top:0;margin-top:-1px;height:27px;line-height:24px}.kint-rich ul.kint-tabs>li:not(.kint-active-tab){line-height:20px}.kint-rich ul.kint-tabs li+li{margin-left:0}.kint-rich ul.kint-tab-contents>li{display:none}.kint-rich ul.kint-tab-contents>li.kint-show{display:block}.kint-rich dt:hover+dd>ul>li.kint-active-tab{border-color:#555;color:aqua}.kint-rich dt>.kint-color-preview{width:16px;height:16px;display:inline-block;vertical-align:middle;margin-left:10px;border:1px solid #282828;background-color:#ccc;background-image:url('data:image/svg+xml;utf8,<svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 2 2"><path fill="%23FFF" d="M0 0h1v2h1V1H0z"/></svg>');background-size:100%}.kint-rich dt>.kint-color-preview:hover{border-color:#555}.kint-rich dt>.kint-color-preview>div{width:100%;height:100%}.kint-rich table{border-collapse:collapse;empty-cells:show;border-spacing:0}.kint-rich table *{font-size:12px}.kint-rich table dt{background:none;padding:2px}.kint-rich table dt .kint-parent{min-width:100%;overflow:hidden;text-overflow:ellipsis;white-space:nowrap}.kint-rich table td,.kint-rich table th{border:1px solid #282828;padding:2px;vertical-align:center}.kint-rich table th{cursor:alias}.kint-rich table td:first-child,.kint-rich table th{font-weight:bold;background:#070707;color:#e2e1e1}.kint-rich table td{background:#070707;white-space:pre}.kint-rich table td>dl{padding:0}.kint-rich table pre{border-top:0;border-right:0}.kint-rich table thead th:first-child{background:none;border:0}.kint-rich table tr:hover>td{box-shadow:0 0 1px 0 #555 inset}.kint-rich table tr:hover var{color:aqua}.kint-rich table ul.kint-tabs li.kint-active-tab{height:20px;line-height:17px}.kint-rich pre.kint-source{margin-left:-1px}.kint-rich pre.kint-source[data-kint-filename]:before{display:block;content:attr(data-kint-filename);margin-bottom:4px;padding-bottom:4px;border-bottom:1px solid #070707}.kint-rich pre.kint-source>div:before{display:inline-block;content:counter(kint-l);counter-increment:kint-l;border-right:1px solid #555;padding-right:8px;margin-right:8px}.kint-rich pre.kint-source>div.kint-highlight{background:#070707}.kint-rich .kint-microtime-lap{text-shadow:-1px 0 #555,0 1px #555,1px 0 #555,0 -1px #555;color:#070707;font-weight:bold}input.kint-note-input{width:100%}.kint-rich .kint-focused{box-shadow:0 0 3px 2px aqua}.kint-rich dt{font-weight:normal}.kint-rich dt.kint-parent{margin-top:4px}.kint-rich dl dl{margin-top:4px;padding-left:25px;border-left:none}.kint-rich>dl>dt{background:#070707}.kint-rich ul{margin:0;padding-left:0}.kint-rich ul:not(.kint-tabs)>li{border-left:0}.kint-rich ul.kint-tabs{background:#070707;border:1px solid #282828;border-width:0 1px 1px 1px;padding:4px 0 0 12px;margin-left:-1px;margin-top:-1px}.kint-rich ul.kint-tabs li,.kint-rich ul.kint-tabs li+li{margin:0 0 0 4px}.kint-rich ul.kint-tabs li{border-bottom-width:0;height:25px}.kint-rich ul.kint-tabs li:first-child{margin-left:0}.kint-rich ul.kint-tabs li.kint-active-tab{border-top:1px solid #282828;background:#000;font-weight:bold;padding-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #000 !important;margin-bottom:-1px}.kint-rich ul.kint-tabs li.kint-active-tab:hover{border-bottom:1px solid #000}.kint-rich ul>li>pre{border:1px solid #282828}.kint-rich dt:hover+dd>ul{border-color:#555}.kint-rich pre{background:#000;margin-top:4px;margin-left:25px}.kint-rich .kint-source{margin-left:-1px}.kint-rich .kint-source .kint-highlight{background:#303}.kint-rich .kint-parent.kint-show>.kint-search{border-bottom-width:1px}.kint-rich table td{background:#000}.kint-rich table td>dl{padding:0;margin:0}.kint-rich table td>dl>dt.kint-parent{margin:0}.kint-rich table td:first-child,.kint-rich table td,.kint-rich table th{padding:2px 4px}.kint-rich table dd,.kint-rich table dt{background:#000}.kint-rich table tr:hover>td{box-shadow:none;background:#303}
diff --git a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/resources/compiled/aante-light.css b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/resources/compiled/aante-light.css
index 832dee71..16194736 100644
--- a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/resources/compiled/aante-light.css
+++ b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/resources/compiled/aante-light.css
@@ -1 +1 @@
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diff --git a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/resources/compiled/original.css b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/resources/compiled/original.css
index e3c2bf41..331b2c38 100644
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diff --git a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/resources/compiled/plain.css b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/resources/compiled/plain.css
index ba1eba0a..85a4e739 100644
--- a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/resources/compiled/plain.css
+++ b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/resources/compiled/plain.css
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diff --git a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/resources/compiled/solarized-dark.css b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/resources/compiled/solarized-dark.css
index 4ab5e287..2cc125ed 100644
--- a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/resources/compiled/solarized-dark.css
+++ b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/resources/compiled/solarized-dark.css
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diff --git a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/resources/compiled/solarized.css b/system/ThirdParty/Kint/resources/compiled/solarized.css
index 952453ed..8c1a67f0 100644
--- a/system/ThirdParty/Kint/resources/compiled/solarized.css
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diff --git a/system/Validation/CreditCardRules.php b/system/Validation/CreditCardRules.php
index 61f59d7b..8e17b75d 100644
--- a/system/Validation/CreditCardRules.php
+++ b/system/Validation/CreditCardRules.php
@@ -185,7 +185,7 @@ class CreditCardRules
         }
 
         // If empty, it's not a card type we recognize, or invalid type.
-        if (empty($info)) {
+        if ($info === null) {
             return false;
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Validation/DotArrayFilter.php b/system/Validation/DotArrayFilter.php
index 43cb1937..1ba9b92f 100644
--- a/system/Validation/DotArrayFilter.php
+++ b/system/Validation/DotArrayFilter.php
@@ -44,7 +44,7 @@ final class DotArrayFilter
                 $segments
             );
 
-            $result = array_merge_recursive($result, self::filter($segments, $array));
+            $result = array_replace_recursive($result, self::filter($segments, $array));
         }
 
         return $result;
@@ -93,7 +93,7 @@ final class DotArrayFilter
 
         // If this is the last index, make sure to return it now,
         // and not try to recurse through things.
-        if (empty($indexes)) {
+        if ($indexes === []) {
             return [$currentIndex => $array[$currentIndex]];
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Validation/FormatRules.php b/system/Validation/FormatRules.php
index 5089f5a0..88775d14 100644
--- a/system/Validation/FormatRules.php
+++ b/system/Validation/FormatRules.php
@@ -252,7 +252,7 @@ class FormatRules
      */
     public function valid_ip(?string $ip = null, ?string $which = null): bool
     {
-        if (empty($ip)) {
+        if ($ip === null || $ip === '') {
             return false;
         }
 
@@ -281,7 +281,7 @@ class FormatRules
      */
     public function valid_url(?string $str = null): bool
     {
-        if (empty($str)) {
+        if ($str === null || $str === '') {
             return false;
         }
 
@@ -305,7 +305,7 @@ class FormatRules
      */
     public function valid_url_strict(?string $str = null, ?string $validSchemes = null): bool
     {
-        if (empty($str)) {
+        if ($str === null || $str === '' || $str === '0') {
             return false;
         }
 
@@ -322,6 +322,8 @@ class FormatRules
 
     /**
      * Checks for a valid date and matches a given date format
+     *
+     * @param non-empty-string|null $format
      */
     public function valid_date(?string $str = null, ?string $format = null): bool
     {
@@ -329,7 +331,7 @@ class FormatRules
             return false;
         }
 
-        if (empty($format)) {
+        if ($format === null || $format === '') {
             return strtotime($str) !== false;
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Validation/Rules.php b/system/Validation/Rules.php
index b7c585f5..7a051f90 100644
--- a/system/Validation/Rules.php
+++ b/system/Validation/Rules.php
@@ -24,9 +24,10 @@ class Rules
     /**
      * The value does not match another field in $data.
      *
-     * @param array $data Other field/value pairs
+     * @param string|null $str
+     * @param array       $data Other field/value pairs
      */
-    public function differs(?string $str, string $field, array $data): bool
+    public function differs($str, string $field, array $data): bool
     {
         if (strpos($field, '.') !== false) {
             return $str !== dot_array_search($field, $data);
@@ -104,7 +105,8 @@ class Rules
             ->limit(1);
 
         if (
-            ! empty($whereField) && ! empty($whereValue)
+            $whereField !== null && $whereField !== ''
+            && $whereValue !== null && $whereValue !== ''
             && ! preg_match('/^\{(\w+)\}$/', $whereValue)
         ) {
             $row = $row->where($whereField, $whereValue);
@@ -149,7 +151,8 @@ class Rules
             ->limit(1);
 
         if (
-            ! empty($ignoreField) && ! empty($ignoreValue)
+            $ignoreField !== null && $ignoreField !== ''
+            && $ignoreValue !== null && $ignoreValue !== ''
             && ! preg_match('/^\{(\w+)\}$/', $ignoreValue)
         ) {
             $row = $row->where("{$ignoreField} !=", $ignoreValue);
@@ -177,15 +180,16 @@ class Rules
     /**
      * Matches the value of another field in $data.
      *
-     * @param array $data Other field/value pairs
+     * @param string|null $str
+     * @param array       $data Other field/value pairs
      */
-    public function matches(?string $str, string $field, array $data): bool
+    public function matches($str, string $field, array $data): bool
     {
         if (strpos($field, '.') !== false) {
             return $str === dot_array_search($field, $data);
         }
 
-        return array_key_exists($field, $data) && $str === $data[$field];
+        return isset($data[$field]) && $str === $data[$field];
     }
 
     /**
@@ -254,7 +258,7 @@ class Rules
      */
     public function required_with($str = null, ?string $fields = null, array $data = []): bool
     {
-        if ($fields === null || empty($data)) {
+        if ($fields === null || $data === []) {
             throw new InvalidArgumentException('You must supply the parameters: fields, data.');
         }
 
@@ -274,14 +278,16 @@ class Rules
 
         foreach (explode(',', $fields) as $field) {
             if (
-                (array_key_exists($field, $data) && ! empty($data[$field]))
-                || (strpos($field, '.') !== false && ! empty(dot_array_search($field, $data)))
+                (array_key_exists($field, $data)
+                    && ! empty($data[$field]))  // @phpstan-ignore-line Use empty()
+                || (strpos($field, '.') !== false
+                    && ! empty(dot_array_search($field, $data)))  // @phpstan-ignore-line Use empty()
             ) {
                 $requiredFields[] = $field;
             }
         }
 
-        return empty($requiredFields);
+        return $requiredFields === [];
     }
 
     /**
@@ -303,7 +309,7 @@ class Rules
         ?string $error = null,
         ?string $field = null
     ): bool {
-        if ($otherFields === null || empty($data)) {
+        if ($otherFields === null || $data === []) {
             throw new InvalidArgumentException('You must supply the parameters: otherFields, data.');
         }
 
@@ -321,7 +327,8 @@ class Rules
         foreach (explode(',', $otherFields) as $otherField) {
             if (
                 (strpos($otherField, '.') === false)
-                && (! array_key_exists($otherField, $data) || empty($data[$otherField]))
+                && (! array_key_exists($otherField, $data)
+                    || empty($data[$otherField])) // @phpstan-ignore-line Use empty()
             ) {
                 return false;
             }
@@ -336,7 +343,7 @@ class Rules
                 $fieldKey        = $fieldSplitArray[1];
 
                 if (is_array($fieldData)) {
-                    return ! empty(dot_array_search($otherField, $data)[$fieldKey]);
+                    return ! empty(dot_array_search($otherField, $data)[$fieldKey]);  // @phpstan-ignore-line Use empty()
                 }
                 $nowField      = str_replace('*', $fieldKey, $otherField);
                 $nowFieldVaule = dot_array_search($nowField, $data);
diff --git a/system/Validation/StrictRules/Rules.php b/system/Validation/StrictRules/Rules.php
index 0887eff2..3086ca5a 100644
--- a/system/Validation/StrictRules/Rules.php
+++ b/system/Validation/StrictRules/Rules.php
@@ -36,13 +36,26 @@ class Rules
      * @param array|bool|float|int|object|string|null $str
      * @param array                                   $data Other field/value pairs
      */
-    public function differs($str, string $field, array $data): bool
-    {
-        if (! is_string($str)) {
+    public function differs(
+        $str,
+        string $otherField,
+        array $data,
+        ?string $error = null,
+        ?string $field = null
+    ): bool {
+        if (strpos($otherField, '.') !== false) {
+            return $str !== dot_array_search($otherField, $data);
+        }
+
+        if (! array_key_exists($field, $data)) {
             return false;
         }
 
-        return $this->nonStrictRules->differs($str, $field, $data);
+        if (! array_key_exists($otherField, $data)) {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        return $str !== ($data[$otherField] ?? null);
     }
 
     /**
@@ -144,7 +157,8 @@ class Rules
             ->limit(1);
 
         if (
-            ! empty($whereField) && ! empty($whereValue)
+            $whereField !== null && $whereField !== ''
+            && $whereValue !== null && $whereValue !== ''
             && ! preg_match('/^\{(\w+)\}$/', $whereValue)
         ) {
             $row = $row->where($whereField, $whereValue);
@@ -203,7 +217,8 @@ class Rules
             ->limit(1);
 
         if (
-            ! empty($ignoreField) && ! empty($ignoreValue)
+            $ignoreField !== null && $ignoreField !== ''
+            && $ignoreValue !== null && $ignoreValue !== ''
             && ! preg_match('/^\{(\w+)\}$/', $ignoreValue)
         ) {
             $row = $row->where("{$ignoreField} !=", $ignoreValue);
@@ -254,9 +269,26 @@ class Rules
      * @param array|bool|float|int|object|string|null $str
      * @param array                                   $data Other field/value pairs
      */
-    public function matches($str, string $field, array $data): bool
-    {
-        return $this->nonStrictRules->matches($str, $field, $data);
+    public function matches(
+        $str,
+        string $otherField,
+        array $data,
+        ?string $error = null,
+        ?string $field = null
+    ): bool {
+        if (strpos($otherField, '.') !== false) {
+            return $str === dot_array_search($otherField, $data);
+        }
+
+        if (! array_key_exists($field, $data)) {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        if (! array_key_exists($otherField, $data)) {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        return $str === ($data[$otherField] ?? null);
     }
 
     /**
diff --git a/system/Validation/Validation.php b/system/Validation/Validation.php
index ad95cde7..83bb361e 100644
--- a/system/Validation/Validation.php
+++ b/system/Validation/Validation.php
@@ -12,6 +12,7 @@
 namespace CodeIgniter\Validation;
 
 use Closure;
+use CodeIgniter\HTTP\Exceptions\HTTPException;
 use CodeIgniter\HTTP\IncomingRequest;
 use CodeIgniter\HTTP\RequestInterface;
 use CodeIgniter\Validation\Exceptions\ValidationException;
@@ -147,7 +148,7 @@ class Validation implements ValidationInterface
 
         // If no rules exist, we return false to ensure
         // the developer didn't forget to set the rules.
-        if (empty($this->rules)) {
+        if ($this->rules === []) {
             return false;
         }
 
@@ -168,12 +169,14 @@ class Validation implements ValidationInterface
             }
 
             if (strpos($field, '*') !== false) {
-                $values = array_filter(array_flatten_with_dots($data), static fn ($key) => preg_match(
-                    '/^'
-                    . str_replace(['\.\*', '\*\.'], ['\..+', '.+\.'], preg_quote($field, '/'))
-                    . '$/',
-                    $key
-                ), ARRAY_FILTER_USE_KEY);
+                $flattenedArray = array_flatten_with_dots($data);
+
+                $values = array_filter(
+                    $flattenedArray,
+                    static fn ($key) => preg_match(self::getRegex($field), $key),
+                    ARRAY_FILTER_USE_KEY
+                );
+
                 // if keys not found
                 $values = $values ?: [$field => null];
             } else {
@@ -211,6 +214,20 @@ class Validation implements ValidationInterface
         return false;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Returns regex pattern for key with dot array syntax.
+     */
+    private static function getRegex(string $field): string
+    {
+        return '/\A'
+            . str_replace(
+                ['\.\*', '\*\.'],
+                ['\.[^.]+', '[^.]+\.'],
+                preg_quote($field, '/')
+            )
+            . '\z/';
+    }
+
     /**
      * Runs the validation process, returning true or false determining whether
      * validation was successful or not.
@@ -480,6 +497,10 @@ class Validation implements ValidationInterface
         if (strpos($request->getHeaderLine('Content-Type'), 'application/json') !== false) {
             $this->data = $request->getJSON(true);
 
+            if (! is_array($this->data)) {
+                throw HTTPException::forUnsupportedJSONFormat();
+            }
+
             return $this;
         }
 
@@ -686,7 +707,7 @@ class Validation implements ValidationInterface
      */
     protected function loadRuleSets()
     {
-        if (empty($this->ruleSetFiles)) {
+        if ($this->ruleSetFiles === [] || $this->ruleSetFiles === null) {
             throw ValidationException::forNoRuleSets();
         }
 
@@ -703,13 +724,15 @@ class Validation implements ValidationInterface
      * same format used with setRules(). Additionally, check
      * for {group}_errors for an array of custom error messages.
      *
+     * @param non-empty-string|null $group
+     *
      * @return array<int, array> [rules, customErrors]
      *
      * @throws ValidationException
      */
     public function loadRuleGroup(?string $group = null)
     {
-        if (empty($group)) {
+        if ($group === null || $group === '') {
             return [];
         }
 
@@ -814,9 +837,7 @@ class Validation implements ValidationInterface
      */
     public function hasError(string $field): bool
     {
-        $pattern = '/^' . str_replace('\.\*', '\..+', preg_quote($field, '/')) . '$/';
-
-        return (bool) preg_grep($pattern, array_keys($this->getErrors()));
+        return (bool) preg_grep(self::getRegex($field), array_keys($this->getErrors()));
     }
 
     /**
@@ -829,10 +850,11 @@ class Validation implements ValidationInterface
             $field = array_key_first($this->rules);
         }
 
-        $errors = array_filter($this->getErrors(), static fn ($key) => preg_match(
-            '/^' . str_replace(['\.\*', '\*\.'], ['\..+', '.+\.'], preg_quote($field, '/')) . '$/',
-            $key
-        ), ARRAY_FILTER_USE_KEY);
+        $errors = array_filter(
+            $this->getErrors(),
+            static fn ($key) => preg_match(self::getRegex($field), $key),
+            ARRAY_FILTER_USE_KEY
+        );
 
         return $errors === [] ? '' : implode("\n", $errors);
     }
@@ -868,7 +890,8 @@ class Validation implements ValidationInterface
     /**
      * Attempts to find the appropriate error message
      *
-     * @param string|null $value The value that caused the validation to fail.
+     * @param non-empty-string|null $label
+     * @param string|null           $value The value that caused the validation to fail.
      */
     protected function getErrorMessage(
         string $rule,
@@ -892,10 +915,10 @@ class Validation implements ValidationInterface
             $message = lang('Validation.' . $rule);
         }
 
-        $message = str_replace('{field}', empty($label) ? $field : lang($label), $message);
+        $message = str_replace('{field}', ($label === null || $label === '') ? $field : lang($label), $message);
         $message = str_replace(
             '{param}',
-            empty($this->rules[$param]['label']) ? $param : lang($this->rules[$param]['label']),
+            (! isset($this->rules[$param]['label'])) ? $param : lang($this->rules[$param]['label']),
             $message
         );
 
diff --git a/system/Validation/ValidationInterface.php b/system/Validation/ValidationInterface.php
index 78c38468..c289afc4 100644
--- a/system/Validation/ValidationInterface.php
+++ b/system/Validation/ValidationInterface.php
@@ -134,6 +134,8 @@ interface ValidationInterface
      * same format used with setRules(). Additionally, check
      * for {group}_errors for an array of custom error messages.
      *
+     * @param non-empty-string|null $group
+     *
      * @return array
      */
     public function loadRuleGroup(?string $group = null);
diff --git a/system/Validation/Views/list.php b/system/Validation/Views/list.php
index cc95156c..3669f038 100644
--- a/system/Validation/Views/list.php
+++ b/system/Validation/Views/list.php
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-<?php if (! empty($errors)) : ?>
+<?php if (isset($errors) && $errors !== []) : ?>
 	<div class="errors" role="alert">
 		<ul>
 		<?php foreach ($errors as $error) : ?>
diff --git a/system/View/Cell.php b/system/View/Cell.php
index f654e97a..141ceaf3 100644
--- a/system/View/Cell.php
+++ b/system/View/Cell.php
@@ -84,11 +84,9 @@ class Cell
         $params = $this->prepareParams($params);
 
         // Is the output cached?
-        $cacheName = ! empty($cacheName)
-            ? $cacheName
-            : str_replace(['\\', '/'], '', $class) . $method . md5(serialize($params));
+        $cacheName ??= str_replace(['\\', '/'], '', $class) . $method . md5(serialize($params));
 
-        if (! empty($this->cache) && $output = $this->cache->get($cacheName)) {
+        if ($output = $this->cache->get($cacheName)) {
             return $output;
         }
 
@@ -105,7 +103,7 @@ class Cell
             : $this->renderSimpleClass($instance, $method, $params, $class);
 
         // Can we cache it?
-        if (! empty($this->cache) && $ttl !== 0) {
+        if ($ttl !== 0) {
             $this->cache->save($cacheName, $output, $ttl);
         }
 
@@ -119,11 +117,14 @@ class Cell
      *
      * @param array|string|null $params
      *
-     * @return array|null
+     * @return array
      */
     public function prepareParams($params)
     {
-        if (empty($params) || (! is_string($params) && ! is_array($params))) {
+        if (
+            ($params === null || $params === '' || $params === [])
+            || (! is_string($params) && ! is_array($params))
+        ) {
             return [];
         }
 
@@ -139,7 +140,7 @@ class Cell
             unset($separator);
 
             foreach ($params as $p) {
-                if (! empty($p)) {
+                if ($p !== '') {
                     [$key, $val] = explode('=', $p);
 
                     $newParams[trim($key)] = trim($val, ', ');
@@ -175,19 +176,18 @@ class Cell
 
         [$class, $method] = explode(':', $library);
 
-        if (empty($class)) {
+        if ($class === '') {
             throw ViewException::forNoCellClass();
         }
 
         // locate and return an instance of the cell
-        // @TODO extend Factories to be able to load classes with the same short name.
-        $object = class_exists($class) ? new $class() : Factories::cells($class);
+        $object = Factories::cells($class, ['getShared' => false]);
 
         if (! is_object($object)) {
             throw ViewException::forInvalidCellClass($class);
         }
 
-        if (empty($method)) {
+        if ($method === '') {
             $method = 'index';
         }
 
@@ -274,7 +274,7 @@ class Cell
         $refParams  = $refMethod->getParameters();
 
         if ($paramCount === 0) {
-            if (! empty($params)) {
+            if ($params !== []) {
                 throw ViewException::forMissingCellParameters($class, $method);
             }
 
diff --git a/system/View/Filters.php b/system/View/Filters.php
index 65dfe6df..fa03a191 100644
--- a/system/View/Filters.php
+++ b/system/View/Filters.php
@@ -66,7 +66,7 @@ class Filters
      */
     public static function default($value, string $default): string
     {
-        return empty($value)
+        return empty($value) // @phpstan-ignore-line
             ? $default
             : $value;
     }
diff --git a/system/View/Parser.php b/system/View/Parser.php
index 12057007..87f0e96b 100644
--- a/system/View/Parser.php
+++ b/system/View/Parser.php
@@ -20,8 +20,8 @@ use Psr\Log\LoggerInterface;
 /**
  * Class for parsing pseudo-vars
  *
- * @phpstan-type ParserCallable (callable(mixed): mixed)
- * @phpstan-type ParserCallableString (callable(mixed): mixed)&string
+ * @phpstan-type parser_callable (callable(mixed): mixed)
+ * @phpstan-type parser_callable_string (callable(mixed): mixed)&string
  *
  * @see \CodeIgniter\View\ParserTest
  */
@@ -64,7 +64,7 @@ class Parser extends View
      * Stores any plugins registered at run-time.
      *
      * @var array<string, array<string>|callable|string>
-     * @phpstan-var array<string, array<ParserCallableString>|ParserCallableString|ParserCallable>
+     * @phpstan-var array<string, array<parser_callable_string>|parser_callable_string|parser_callable>
      */
     protected $plugins = [];
 
@@ -103,7 +103,7 @@ class Parser extends View
         }
 
         $fileExt = pathinfo($view, PATHINFO_EXTENSION);
-        $view    = empty($fileExt) ? $view . '.php' : $view; // allow Views as .html, .tpl, etc (from CI3)
+        $view    = ($fileExt === '') ? $view . '.php' : $view; // allow Views as .html, .tpl, etc (from CI3)
 
         $cacheName = $options['cache_name'] ?? str_replace('.php', '', $view);
 
@@ -120,8 +120,8 @@ class Parser extends View
             $fileOrig = $file;
             $file     = $this->loader->locateFile($view, 'Views');
 
-            // locateFile will return an empty string if the file cannot be found.
-            if (empty($file)) {
+            // locateFile() will return false if the file cannot be found.
+            if ($file === false) {
                 throw ViewException::forInvalidFile($fileOrig);
             }
         }
@@ -185,12 +185,12 @@ class Parser extends View
      * so that the variable is correctly handled within the
      * parsing itself, and contexts (including raw) are respected.
      *
-     * @param string|null $context The context to escape it for: html, css, js, url, raw
-     *                             If 'raw', no escaping will happen
+     * @param non-empty-string|null $context The context to escape it for: html, css, js, url, raw
+     *                                       If 'raw', no escaping will happen
      */
     public function setData(array $data = [], ?string $context = null): RendererInterface
     {
-        if (! empty($context)) {
+        if ($context !== null && $context !== '') {
             foreach ($data as $key => &$value) {
                 if (is_array($value)) {
                     foreach ($value as &$obj) {
@@ -322,7 +322,7 @@ class Parser extends View
                     if (is_array($val)) {
                         $pair = $this->parsePair($key, $val, $match[1]);
 
-                        if (! empty($pair)) {
+                        if ($pair !== []) {
                             $pairs[array_keys($pair)[0]] = true;
 
                             $temp = array_merge($temp, $pair);
@@ -534,9 +534,9 @@ class Parser extends View
 
         // Our regex earlier will leave all chained values on a single line
         // so we need to break them apart so we can apply them all.
-        $filters = ! empty($matches[1]) ? explode('|', $matches[1]) : [];
+        $filters = (isset($matches[1]) && $matches[1] !== '') ? explode('|', $matches[1]) : [];
 
-        if ($escape && empty($filters) && ($context = $this->shouldAddEscaping($orig))) {
+        if ($escape && $filters === [] && ($context = $this->shouldAddEscaping($orig))) {
             $filters[] = "esc({$context})";
         }
 
@@ -589,10 +589,10 @@ class Parser extends View
             preg_match('/\([\w<>=\/\\\,:.\-\s\+]+\)/u', $filter, $param);
 
             // Remove the () and spaces to we have just the parameter left
-            $param = ! empty($param) ? trim($param[0], '() ') : null;
+            $param = ($param !== []) ? trim($param[0], '() ') : null;
 
             // Params can be separated by commas to allow multiple parameters for the filter
-            if (! empty($param)) {
+            if ($param !== null && $param !== '') {
                 $param = explode(',', $param);
 
                 // Clean it up
@@ -604,7 +604,7 @@ class Parser extends View
             }
 
             // Get our filter name
-            $filter = ! empty($param) ? trim(strtolower(substr($filter, 0, strpos($filter, '(')))) : trim($filter);
+            $filter = $param !== [] ? trim(strtolower(substr($filter, 0, strpos($filter, '(')))) : trim($filter);
 
             if (! array_key_exists($filter, $this->config->filters)) {
                 continue;
diff --git a/system/View/Plugins.php b/system/View/Plugins.php
index b74ad96b..a842990d 100644
--- a/system/View/Plugins.php
+++ b/system/View/Plugins.php
@@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ class Plugins
     /**
      * Wrap helper function to use as view plugin.
      *
-     * @return mixed|string|URI
+     * @return string|URI
      */
     public static function previousURL()
     {
@@ -79,7 +79,7 @@ class Plugins
     public static function ValidationErrors(array $params = []): string
     {
         $validator = Services::validation();
-        if (empty($params)) {
+        if ($params === []) {
             return $validator->listErrors();
         }
 
diff --git a/system/View/RendererInterface.php b/system/View/RendererInterface.php
index 409a5a76..a0f093b6 100644
--- a/system/View/RendererInterface.php
+++ b/system/View/RendererInterface.php
@@ -46,6 +46,7 @@ interface RendererInterface
      *
      * @param string $context The context to escape it for: html, css, js, url
      *                        If 'raw', no escaping will happen
+     * @phpstan-param null|'html'|'js'|'css'|'url'|'attr'|'raw' $context
      *
      * @return RendererInterface
      */
@@ -57,6 +58,7 @@ interface RendererInterface
      * @param mixed  $value
      * @param string $context The context to escape it for: html, css, js, url
      *                        If 'raw' no escaping will happen
+     * @phpstan-param null|'html'|'js'|'css'|'url'|'attr'|'raw' $context
      *
      * @return RendererInterface
      */
diff --git a/system/View/Table.php b/system/View/Table.php
index 5e241f11..c9cd33d3 100644
--- a/system/View/Table.php
+++ b/system/View/Table.php
@@ -25,7 +25,7 @@ class Table
     /**
      * Data for table rows
      *
-     * @var array
+     * @var list<array>|list<list<array>>
      */
     public $rows = [];
 
@@ -217,7 +217,7 @@ class Table
     {
         $tmpRow = $this->_prepArgs(func_get_args());
 
-        if ($this->syncRowsWithHeading && ! empty($this->heading)) {
+        if ($this->syncRowsWithHeading && $this->heading !== []) {
             // each key has an index
             $keyIndex = array_flip(array_keys($this->heading));
 
@@ -258,7 +258,7 @@ class Table
      *
      * Ensures a standard associative array format for all cell data
      *
-     * @return array
+     * @return array<string, array>|list<array>
      */
     protected function _prepArgs(array $args)
     {
@@ -303,7 +303,7 @@ class Table
     {
         // The table data can optionally be passed to this function
         // either as a database result object or an array
-        if (! empty($tableData)) {
+        if ($tableData !== null && $tableData !== []) {
             if ($tableData instanceof BaseResult) {
                 $this->_setFromDBResult($tableData);
             } elseif (is_array($tableData)) {
@@ -312,7 +312,7 @@ class Table
         }
 
         // Is there anything to display? No? Smite them!
-        if (empty($this->heading) && empty($this->rows)) {
+        if ($this->heading === [] && $this->rows === []) {
             return 'Undefined table data';
         }
 
@@ -333,7 +333,7 @@ class Table
         }
 
         // Is there a table heading to display?
-        if (! empty($this->heading)) {
+        if ($this->heading !== []) {
             $headerTag = null;
 
             if (preg_match('/(<)(td|th)(?=\h|>)/i', $this->template['heading_cell_start'], $matches) === 1) {
@@ -358,7 +358,7 @@ class Table
         }
 
         // Build the table rows
-        if (! empty($this->rows)) {
+        if ($this->rows !== []) {
             $out .= $this->template['tbody_open'] . $this->newline;
 
             $i = 1;
@@ -381,7 +381,7 @@ class Table
                     $cell = $cell['data'] ?? '';
                     $out .= $temp;
 
-                    if ($cell === '' || $cell === null) {
+                    if ($cell === '') {
                         $out .= $this->emptyCells;
                     } elseif (isset($this->function)) {
                         $out .= ($this->function)($cell);
@@ -399,7 +399,7 @@ class Table
         }
 
         // Any table footing to display?
-        if (! empty($this->footing)) {
+        if ($this->footing !== []) {
             $footerTag = null;
 
             if (preg_match('/(<)(td|th)(?=\h|>)/i', $this->template['footing_cell_start'], $matches)) {
@@ -458,7 +458,7 @@ class Table
     protected function _setFromDBResult($object)
     {
         // First generate the headings from the table column names
-        if ($this->autoHeading && empty($this->heading)) {
+        if ($this->autoHeading && $this->heading === []) {
             $this->heading = $this->_prepArgs($object->getFieldNames());
         }
 
@@ -476,7 +476,7 @@ class Table
      */
     protected function _setFromArray($data)
     {
-        if ($this->autoHeading && empty($this->heading)) {
+        if ($this->autoHeading && $this->heading === []) {
             $this->heading = $this->_prepArgs(array_shift($data));
         }
 
diff --git a/system/View/View.php b/system/View/View.php
index 9d84e969..2e2823fa 100644
--- a/system/View/View.php
+++ b/system/View/View.php
@@ -178,7 +178,7 @@ class View implements RendererInterface
 
         $fileExt = pathinfo($view, PATHINFO_EXTENSION);
         // allow Views as .html, .tpl, etc (from CI3)
-        $this->renderVars['view'] = empty($fileExt) ? $view . '.php' : $view;
+        $this->renderVars['view'] = ($fileExt === '') ? $view . '.php' : $view;
 
         $this->renderVars['options'] = $options ?? [];
 
@@ -207,12 +207,12 @@ class View implements RendererInterface
             $this->renderVars['file'] = $this->loader->locateFile(
                 $this->renderVars['view'],
                 'Views',
-                empty($fileExt) ? 'php' : $fileExt
+                ($fileExt === '') ? 'php' : $fileExt
             );
         }
 
-        // locateFile will return an empty string if the file cannot be found.
-        if (empty($this->renderVars['file'])) {
+        // locateFile() will return false if the file cannot be found.
+        if ($this->renderVars['file'] === false) {
             throw ViewException::forInvalidFile($this->renderVars['view']);
         }
 
diff --git a/system/View/ViewDecoratorTrait.php b/system/View/ViewDecoratorTrait.php
index 97cdbe0a..1bec8acf 100644
--- a/system/View/ViewDecoratorTrait.php
+++ b/system/View/ViewDecoratorTrait.php
@@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ trait ViewDecoratorTrait
      */
     protected function decorateOutput(string $html): string
     {
-        $decorators = \config(ViewConfig::class)->decorators;
+        $decorators = $this->config->decorators ?? config(ViewConfig::class)->decorators;
 
         foreach ($decorators as $decorator) {
             if (! is_subclass_of($decorator, ViewDecoratorInterface::class)) {
diff --git a/writable/.htaccess b/writable/.htaccess
old mode 100644
new mode 100755
diff --git a/writable/debugbar/.gitkeep b/writable/debugbar/.gitkeep
old mode 100644
new mode 100755